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times used to cause great distress to those grieving improperly with all the moralising that typically surrounds matters of work in fact it grasps some fundamental truths about grief that it invites being thought about physically and spatially that it is an experience that involves something internal being damaged or lost as well as something external that some fundamental action of holding on and releasing is involved the closer one looks at those tasks however the less clear they begin to seem if this popular wisdom simply encodes long held common intuitions about grief then its central metaphors owe at least something to a 20th century diffusion of freudian ideas in 1917 freud wrote mourning and melancholia in which he opposes the normal state of mourning the painful unpleasure in which we gradually disinvest psychic energy in the lost object to the pathological state of melancholia an inability to detach and instead a psychic incorporation of the lost object where the ambivalent love and hatred felt toward it is now directed against the split ego despite freud s best efforts none of his arguments distinguishing between normal and pathological states of loss completely manage to seal one off from the other and by 1923 in the ego and the id he prefers given the ubiquity of melancholic identifications and incorporation to view it as vital in development of the superego and views the father unsurprisingly as the primary object of incorporation but what of mourning what happens later in life when people die one useful extension to freud s thinking here comes from melanie klein who argues in mourning and its relation to manic depressive states that mourning is melancholic and though the process of incorporation is vital to the articulation of the psyche in childhood loss and reintrojection is a process repeated throughout adult life in each case the loss imperils the inner world of good objects with which the healthy adult has populated his psyche since the initial loss of his caregiver in infancy his inner world the one which he has built up from his earliest days onward in his phantasy was was destroyed when the actual loss occurred the rebuilding of this inner world characterises the successful work of mourning the ability to reestablish this inner universe distinguishes the successful mourner from both the failed mourner and the manic depressive in klein s terminology in this particular lineage of psychoanalysis it is this concept of the inner world that i find most suggestive especially the way in which it parallels my concerns with figuration that this particular exercise of reason is an attempt to rebuild that inner world what distinguishes klein s account of mourning is that each loss re endangers the whole of the inner world with this death all the others that preceded it again what klein does not say explicitly but i think follows is that the losses may finally be too many to return from the mechanisms that allowed one to rebuild the inner world last time may not be strengthened but rather depleted and this time around finally inadequate to the task in the case of grieving a suicide is this doubly the case the violence of suicide and the thought that j would have himself been experiencing that absolute shattering of the inner world makes it difficult to complete mourning i assume the inner dynamics of my psyche are not likely to be easily discerned by me blocks cleavages divisions repressions these are the words the literature uses to describe the normal state of inner opacity that shrouds our waking mind neither do i think klein s model of the mind is its final and best description but close enough to a good recension of the desire and despair that characterises mourning its semi mythic dimensions the shattered and rebuilt world are not digressions from scientific accuracy but expressions proper to the magnitude of grief and its deeply personal yet universal attachments something more then is needed beyond this description strategies for rebuilding the inner world are short on the ground merely urging oneself to rebuild or restore does little however ferocious and demanding the tone struck given this inner opacity i must trust that my instincts in this particular case rather than universally are presenting me with some method of reconstruction however winding and strange its paths may seem my instinct above all has been to take up certain poems novels and plays and to think about them thinking with an intimacy and closeness a kind of critical intensity perhaps desperation that i have hitherto rarely experienced giorgio de chirico il rimorso di oreste 1969 6 what is this urge it isn t simply the urge to experience art but to think about it to respond in a way sufficient to it which does not diminish it through coarse interpretation or betray whatever it stirs in me it is no longer possible to hold the preposterous opinion that certain works of high culture have an intrinsic moral power which improves their audiences the opera loving concentration camp guard is but one of many figures of the twentieth century that makes this idea ridiculous therefore i cannot believe that there is any guaranteed easily redemptory route through literature i do not seek to repopulate my psyche with lear or orestes or antigone nothing so easy they are not people still less people one would want nestled in the most private corners of the soul similarly the urge to think about these texts is not to extract from them a series of pat remedies for inner affliction but an expression of that paradoxical inclination to reason in spite of grief which has so preoccupied me there is no guarantee that it will help but its method of reasoning attentive unsparing as involved in the minute particular as the vast context seems to me a model of the kind of thing that might help restore the world if there is a secret link between mourning memory and representation i think it is seen faintly in this unstinting attention a caveat it might be simply that i am so trained in the habits of literature so conditioned to think about it that this becomes my only way to work on grief attempting to transform it by exposing it utterly to this art it differs from rending one s clothes drinking oneself into a stupor burying oneself in work only in that it promises the possibility of its confrontation transmutation the possibility of something more than temporary deferral not the guarantee the possibility these are unfashionable things to say about literature both in the magnitude of possibility ascribed to it and in the awareness of how prejudiced and parochial our canon seems my grief canon is not in that respect unusual some modernist poets poems from milton and jonson on the death of loved ones donne s incredible poems of arrogance and mourning catullus some perhaps more unusual critical works longinus confused treatise on sublimity virtually no novels except one plays however the greek tragedians and shakespeare these last have particularly preoccupied me longinus first briefly on the sublime is one of the earliest examples of literary criticism longinus has identified that particular works of literature evoke a strange pleasurable discomfort almost a kind of vertigo in their reader he wants to know both what it is and how it is produced on the latter he finds various hallmarks that produce this effect and is surprisingly generous in comparison to one s prejudices about the ancients and what they thought good but has more difficulty pinning down the former he recognises that again and again works of literature seem to coimplicate us in their intensity that they somehow produce an experience of alienation and identification an encounter with a greatness that is hard to encapsulate such an encounter need not be intrinsically good though longinus clearly wants it to be struggling for a way of expressing this sense of vastness he says that sublimity is the echo of a great soul as if this greatness which cannot sufficiently be explained in terms of the mechanics of the text therefore must be located in the moral grandeur of its author we do not adhere to so easy an explanation today great authors are no less morally frail and injured than the rest of us though some persistent sense of a greater access to truth remains hard to extinguish the incomplete but meticulous explanation and the elusiveness of sublimity itself are good beginnings for literary culture good principles for thinking about what literature does to us and how aware of the limits of explanation without abandoning it sometimes i think that longinus is exemplary of one of the central questions of our culture which is how things act on each other over distances and times this question which provided an organising principle for the natural magicians and proto scientists of the late renaissance is no less an animating question for literary criticism how can something written 500 or 2 500 years ago express something that leaves me feeling not only profoundly moved but as if i have been exposed to something true in a way that everyday life does not often permit explanations here tend to grasp for some universal feature of human existence otherwise people reach for a modified version of aristotle and say that these great works allow us to safely purge our emotions catharsis as if they were a built up static charge but somehow this semi biological explanation has always seemed least adequate in the face of great stories of loss tragedy in particular where the sense that something is being taught us is never far away imagine a future society in which a device or a drug had been invented to allow us to express and discharge grief in an evening with no subsequent ill consequences would we feel something missing that it is fiction helps there is a profound difference between a tragedy and a snuff film beyond that i think that most of the most successful tragedies do not offer something simply redemptive but take place at the intersection of justice with revenge stress sometimes until breaking point the idea that one person might be substituted for another reveal that the institution of law never perfectly supersedes our excessive and scarcely satisfiable appetites but even that is too broad an abstraction perhaps it is merely the fact of mimesis that the human imagination can seemingly compass and represent such things that allures us the only novel i have found to talk directly of suicide without being useless or crass or vapid is marguerite yourcenar s memoirs of hadrian which is just such a feat of imagination it is to my mind one of the very greatest novels of the twentieth century although it is preoccupied with things that seem apparently remote from us the passage that i have come back to again and again is that of the suicide of hadrian s young lover antinous and the emperor s subsequent grief antinous joined hadrian at a feast attired in a syrian robe sheer as the skin of a fruit joy shines out of him later in bed hadrian wakes to discover antinous face covered in tears but the agony is private and hadrian returns to sleep in the morning antinous disappears drowned in the nile as if a sacrifice on realising this hadrian says everything gave way everything seemed extinguished the olympian zeus master of all saviour of the world all toppled together and there was only a man with greying hair sobbing on the deck of a boat this is the most succinct expression of grief that i know the simple observation that in grief everything gives way all pretensions one had to composure or to grandeur all the vain and indulgent claims to wisdom or vision all cherished things that make up our world it is not the formal claim to these titles that has vanished hadrian is still emperor for all that means but their animating substance the connection they had to the real world is extinguished they begin to feel absurd when hadrian feels himself stripped to only a man that only does not mean simply smaller in stature and depth than his ridiculous titles would suggest like other men but also that he is suddenly utterly alone in his grief alone and himself mortal greying with all things stripped back to loss this collapse of meaning the sudden absence of the connections that make one feel really in the world is a commonly attested feature of both grief and depression when i say that suicide is a death not of the order of other deaths i mean that in all other kinds of death there is some division between the cause of death and person who dies only in suicide do we have to come to terms with their terrible unity it repeats as a terrible and obstinate fact we have some measure of this in a subsequent passage antinous was dead i remembered platitudes frequently heard one can die at any age or they who die young are beloved by the gods i myself had shared in that execrable abuse of words i had talked of dying of sleep and dying of boredom i had used the word agony the word mourning the word loss antinous was dead love wisest of gods but love had not been to blame for that negligence for the harshness and indifference mingled with passion like sand with the gold borne along by a stream for that blind self content of a man too completely happy and who is growing old could i have been so grossly satisfied antinous was dead far from loving too much as doubtless servianus was proclaiming at that moment in rome i had not been loving enough to force the boy to live on chabrias as a member of an orphic cult held suicide a crime so he tended to insist upon the sacrificial aspect of that ending i myself felt a kind of terrible joy at the thought that that death was a gift but i was the only one to measure how much bitter fermentation there is at the bottom of all sweetness or what degree of despair is hidden under abnegation what hatred is mingled with love a being deeply wounded had thrown this proof of devotion at my very face a boy fearful of losing all had found this means of binding me to him forever had he hoped to protect me by such a sacrifice he must have deemed himself unloved indeed not to have realized that the worst of ills would be to lose him i do not want to over analyse this passage as it is i find it hard to type out without being moved to tears the mechanics of j s death and the fictional antinous are hardly similar nor are the relationships the same yet this is the best description of that intimate grief that i know it describes the obstinate recurrence of fact antinous was dead the feeling that one never knew the real content of words like loss until now the hollowness of platitude one s implication in death and above all the keen and unremitting awareness of the precise balance of despair and love the reverberating violence and hopelessness of suicide this is grief then yourcenar s text is very fine on the strange labyrinths of grief its sudden return when one thinks oneself finally consoled one of its defining fea...