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Text of the page (random words):
clock rate wikipedia 718 captures 26 apr 2004 24 sep 2026 sep oct nov 15 2021 2022 2023 success fail about this capture timestamps the wayback machine http web archive org web 20221015234338 https en wikipedia org wiki clock_rate clock rate from wikipedia the free encyclopedia jump to navigation jump to search frequency at which cpu chip or core is operating clocking redirects here for the practice of tampering with odometers to read less mileage see odometer fraud in computing the clock rate or clock speed typically refers to the frequency at which the clock generator of a processor can generate pulses which are used to synchronize the operations of its components 1 and is used as an indicator of the processor s speed it is measured in clock cycles per second or its equivalent the si unit hertz hz contents 1 determining factors 1 1 binning 1 2 engineering 2 historical milestones and current records 3 research 4 comparing determining factors edit binning edit main article product binning manufacturers of modern processors typically charge premium prices for processors that operate at higher clock rates a practice called binning for a given cpu the clock rates are determined at the end of the manufacturing process through actual testing of each processor chip manufacturers publish a maximum clock rate specification and they test chips before selling them to make sure they meet that specification even when executing the most complicated instructions with the data patterns that take the longest to settle testing at the temperature and voltage that runs the lowest performance processors successfully tested for compliance with a given set of standards may be labeled with a higher clock rate e g 3 50 ghz while those that fail the standards of the higher clock rate yet pass the standards of a lesser clock rate may be labeled with the lesser clock rate e g 3 3 ghz and sold at a lower price 2 engineering edit the clock rate of a cpu is normally determined by the frequency of an oscillator crystal typically a crystal oscillator produces a fixed sine wave the frequency reference signal electronic circuitry translates that into a square wave at the same frequency for digital electronics applications or in using a cpu multiplier some fixed multiple of the crystal reference frequency the clock distribution network inside the cpu carries that clock signal to all the parts that need it an a d converter has a clock pin driven by a similar system to set the sampling rate with any particular cpu replacing the crystal with another crystal that oscillates at half the frequency underclocking will generally make the cpu run at half the performance and reduce waste heat produced by the cpu conversely some people try to increase performance of a cpu by replacing the oscillator crystal with a higher frequency crystal overclocking 3 however the amount of overclocking is limited by the time for the cpu to settle after each pulse and by the extra heat created after each clock pulse the signal lines inside the cpu need time to settle to their new state that is every signal line must finish transitioning from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0 if the next clock pulse comes before that the results will be incorrect in the process of transitioning some energy is wasted as heat mostly inside the driving transistors when executing complicated instructions that cause many transitions the higher the clock rate the more heat produced transistors may be damaged by excessive heat there is also a lower limit of the clock rate unless a fully static core is used historical milestones and current records edit the first fully mechanical analog computer the z1 operated clock frequency at 1 hz cycle per second clock frequency and the first electromechanical general purpose computer the z3 operated at a frequency of about 5 10 hz the first electronic general purpose computer the eniac used a 100 khz clock in its cycling unit as each instruction took 20 cycles it had an instruction rate of 5 khz the first commercial pc the altair 8800 by mits used an intel 8080 cpu with a clock rate of 2 mhz 2 million cycles per second the original ibm pc c 1981 had a clock rate of 4 77 mhz 4 772 727 cycles per second in 1992 both hewlett packard and digital equipment corporation broke the difficult 100 mhz limit with risc techniques in the pa 7100 and axp 21064 dec alpha respectively in 1995 intel s p5 pentium chip ran at 100 mhz 100 million cycles per second on march 6 2000 amd demonstrated passing the 1 ghz milestone a few days ahead of intel shipping 1 ghz in systems in 2002 an intel pentium 4 model was introduced as the first cpu with a clock rate of 3 ghz three billion cycles per second corresponding to 0 33 nanoseconds per cycle since then the clock rate of production processors has increased much more slowly with performance improvements coming from other design changes set in 2011 the guinness world record for the highest cpu clock rate is 8 42938 ghz with an overclocked amd fx 8150 bulldozer based chip in an lhe ln2 cryobath 5 ghz on air 4 5 this is surpassed by the cpu z overclocking record for the highest cpu clock rate at 8 79433 ghz with an amd fx 8350 piledriver based chip bathed in ln2 achieved in november 2012 6 7 it is also surpassed by the slightly slower amd fx 8370 overclocked to 8 72 ghz which tops of the hwbot frequency rankings 8 9 the highest base clock rate on a production processor is the ibm zec12 clocked at 5 5 ghz which was released in august 2012 research edit engineers continue to find new ways to design cpus that settle a little more quickly or use slightly less energy per transition pushing back those limits producing new cpus that can run at slightly higher clock rates the ultimate limits to energy per transition are explored in reversible computing the first fully reversible cpu the pendulum was implemented using standard cmos transistors in the late 1990s at mit 10 11 12 13 engineers also continue to find new ways to design cpus so that they complete more instructions per clock cycle thus achieving a lower cpi cycles or clock cycles per instruction count although they may run at the same or a lower clock rate as older cpus this is achieved through architectural techniques such as instruction pipelining and out of order execution which attempts to exploit instruction level parallelism in the code ibm is working on 100 ghz cpu in 2010 ibm demonstrated a graphene based transistor that can execute 100 billion cycles per second 14 comparing edit main article megahertz myth the clock rate of a cpu is most useful for providing comparisons between cpus in the same family the clock rate is only one of several factors that can influence performance when comparing processors in different families for example an ibm pc with an intel 80486 cpu running at 50 mhz will be about twice as fast internally only as one with the same cpu and memory running at 25 mhz while the same will not be true for mips r4000 running at the same clock rate as the two are different processors that implement different architectures and microarchitectures further a cumulative clock rate measure is sometimes assumed by taking the total cores and multiplying by the total clock rate e g dual core 2 8 ghz being considered processor cumulative 5 6 ghz there are many other factors to consider when comparing the performance of cpus like the width of the cpu s data bus the latency of the memory and the cache architecture clock at the free on line dictionary of computing 1 2 soderstrom thomas 11 december 2006 overclocking guide part 1 risks choices and benefits who overclocks overclocking early processors was as simple and as limited as changing the discrete clock crystal the advent of adjustable clock generators has allowed overclocking to be done without changing parts such as the clock crystal highest clock frequency achieved by a silicon processor chiappetta marco 23 september 2011 amd breaks 8 ghz overclock with upcoming fx processor sets world record with amd fx 8350 hothardware archived from the original on 2015 03 10 retrieved 2012 04 28 cpu z validator world records 8 79ghz fx 8350 is the fastest ever cpu rog republic of gamers global james dave 16 december 2019 amd s ryzen rules overclocking world records but can t beat a 5 year old chip pcgamesn retrieved 23 november 2021 cpu frequency hall of fame hwbot org hwbot retrieved 23 november 2021 michael frank revcomp the reversible and quantum computing research group michael swaine backward to the future dr dobb s journal 2004 michael p frank reversible computing a requirement for extreme supercomputing matthew arthur morrison theory synthesis and application of adiabatic and reversible logic circuits for security applications 2014 ibm details world s fastest graphene transistor pcworld 2010 02 05 retrieved 2019 04 23 v t e processor technologies models abstract machine stored program computer finite state machine with datapath hierarchical deterministic finite automaton queue automaton cellular automaton quantum cellular automaton turing machine alternating turing machine universal post turing quantum nondeterministic turing machine probabilistic turing machine hypercomputation zeno machine belt machine stack machine register machines counter pointer random access random access stored program architecture microarchitecture von neumann harvard modified dataflow transport triggered cellular endianness memory access numa huma load store register memory cache hierarchy memory hierarchy virtual memory secondary storage heterogeneous fabric multiprocessing cognitive neuromorphic instruction set architectures types orthogonal instruction set cisc risc application specific edge trips vliw epic misc oisc nisc zisc visc architecture quantum computing comparison addressing modes instruction sets motorola 68000 series vax pdp 11 x86 arm stanford mips mips mips x power power powerpc power isa clipper architecture sparc superh dec alpha etrax cris m32r unicore itanium openrisc risc v microblaze lmc system 3x0 s 360 s 370 s 390 z architecture tilera isa visc architecture epiphany architecture others execution instruction pipelining pipeline stall operand forwarding classic risc pipeline hazards data dependency structural control false sharing out of order scoreboarding tomasulo algorithm reservation station re order buffer register renaming wide issue speculative branch prediction memory dependence prediction parallelism level bit bit serial word instruction pipelining scalar superscalar task thread process data vector memory distributed multithreading temporal simultaneous hyperthreading speculative preemptive cooperative flynn s taxonomy sisd simd array processing simt pipelined processing associative processing swar misd mimd spmd processor performance transistor count instructions per cycle ipc cycles per instruction cpi instructions per second ips floating point operations per second flops transactions per second tps synaptic updates per second sups performance per watt ppw cache performance metrics computer performance by orders of magnitude types central processing unit cpu graphics processing unit gpu gpgpu vector barrel stream tile processor coprocessor pal asic fpga fpoa cpld multi chip module mcm system in a package sip package on a package pop by application embedded system microprocessor microcontroller mobile notebook ultra low voltage asip soft microprocessor systems on chip system on a chip soc multiprocessor mpsoc programmable psoc network on a chip noc hardware accelerators coprocessor ai accelerator graphics processing unit gpu image processor vision processing unit vpu physics processing unit ppu digital signal processor dsp tensor processing unit tpu secure cryptoprocessor network processor baseband processor word size 1 bit 4 bit 8 bit 12 bit 15 bit 16 bit 24 bit 32 bit 48 bit 64 bit 128 bit 256 bit 512 bit bit slicing others variable core count single core multi core manycore heterogeneous architecture components core cache cpu cache scratchpad memory data cache instruction cache replacement policies coherence bus clock rate clock signal fifo functional units arithmetic logic unit alu address generation unit agu floating point unit fpu memory management unit mmu load store unit translation lookaside buffer tlb branch predictor branch target predictor integrated memory controller imc memory management unit instruction decoder logic combinational sequential glue logic gate quantum array registers processor register status register stack register register file memory buffer memory address register program counter control unit hardwired control unit instruction unit data buffer write buffer microcode rom horizontal microcode counter datapath multiplexer demultiplexer adder multiplier cpu binary decoder address decoder sum addressed decoder barrel shifter circuitry integrated circuit 3d mixed signal power management boolean digital analog quantum switch power management pmu apm acpi dynamic frequency scaling dynamic voltage scaling clock gating performance per watt ppw related history of general purpose cpus microprocessor chronology processor design digital electronics hardware security module semiconductor device fabrication tick tock model pin grid array chip carrier retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title clock_rate oldid 1115402927 categories clock signal temporal rates hidden categories articles with short description short description matches wikidata navigation menu personal tools not logged in talk contributions create account log in namespaces article talk english views read edit view history more search navigation main page contents current events random article about wikipedia contact us donate contribute help learn to edit community portal recent changes upload file tools what links here related changes upload file special pages permanent link page information cite this page wikidata item print export 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