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ouse of representatives in jewish thought the concept of free will hebrew בחירה חפשית romanized bechirah chofshit בחירה bechirah is foundational the most succinct statement is by maimonides in a two part treatment where human free will is specified as part of the universe s godly design maimonides s reasoned 174 that human beings must have free will at least in the context of choosing to do good or evil as without this the demands of the prophets would have been meaningless there would be no need for the torah and mitzvot commandments and justice could not be administered at the same time maimonides and other thinkers recognizes 175 the paradox that will arise given i that judaism simultaneously recognizes god s omniscience and further ii the nature of divine providence as understood in judaism in fact the problem may be seen to overlap several others in jewish philosophy islam edit in islam the theological issue is not usually how to reconcile free will with god s foreknowledge but with god s jabr or divine commanding power al ash ari developed an acquisition or dual agency form of compatibilism in which human free will and divine jabr were both asserted and which became a cornerstone of the dominant ash ari position 176 177 in shia islam ash aris understanding of a higher balance toward predestination is challenged by most theologians 178 free will according to islamic doctrine is the main factor for man s accountability in his her actions throughout life actions taken by people exercising free will are counted on the day of judgement because they are their own however the free will happens with the permission of god 179 in contrast the mu tazila known as the rationalist school of islam has a position that is opposite to the ash arite and other islamic theology in its view of free will and divine justice 180 because the mu tazila have a doctrine that emphasizes god s justice adl 181 182 the mu tazila believe that humans themselves create their will and actions so human actions and movements are not destiny that are solely driven by god and do not necessarily require god s permission for the mu tazila humans themselves create their actions and behavior consciously through free will which is formulated and carried out by the brain and nervous system 183 184 thus this condition guarantees god s justice when judging every human being in the day of judgement 185 others edit the philosopher søren kierkegaard claimed that divine omnipotence cannot be separated from divine goodness 186 as a truly omnipotent and good being god could create beings with true freedom over god furthermore god would voluntarily do so because the greatest good which can be done for a being greater than anything else that one can do for it is to be truly free 187 alvin plantinga s free will defense is a contemporary expansion of this theme adding how god free will and evil are consistent 188 some philosophers follow william of ockham in holding that necessity and possibility are defined with respect to a given point in time and a given matrix of empirical circumstances and so something that is merely possible from the perspective of one observer may be necessary from the perspective of an omniscient 189 some philosophers follow philo of alexandria a philosopher known for his anthropocentrism in holding that free will is a feature of a human s soul and thus that non human animals lack free will 190 scientific approaches edit quantum physics edit modern science is a mixture of deterministic and stochastic theories 191 current physical theories cannot resolve the question of whether determinism is true of the world being very far from a potential theory of everything and open to many different interpretations 192 193 assuming that an indeterministic interpretation of quantum mechanics is correct one may still object that such indeterminism is for all practical purposes confined to microscopic phenomena 194 a more significant question is whether the indeterminism of quantum mechanics allows for the traditional idea of free will based on a perception of free will if a person s action is however only a result of complete quantum randomness mental processes as experienced have no influence on the probabilistic outcomes such as volition 31 according to many interpretations indeterminism enables free will to exist 195 while others assert the opposite because the action was not controllable by the physical being who claims to possess the free will 196 genetics edit like physicists biologists have frequently addressed questions related to free will one of the most heated debates in biology is that of nature versus nurture concerning the relative importance of genetics and biology as compared to culture and environment in human behavior 197 the view of many researchers is that many human behaviors can be explained in terms of humans brains genes and evolutionary histories 198 199 200 this point of view raises the fear that such attribution makes it impossible to hold others responsible for their actions steven pinker s view is that fear of determinism in the context of genetics and evolution is a mistake that it is a confusion of explanation with exculpation responsibility does not require that behavior be uncaused as long as behavior responds to praise and blame 201 moreover it is not certain that environmental determination is any less threatening to free will than genetic determination 202 neuroscience and neurophilosophy edit main articles neurophilosophy and neuroscience of free will see also neurostimulation it has become possible to study the living brain and researchers can now watch the brain s decision making process at work a seminal experiment in this field was conducted by benjamin libet in the 1980s in which he asked each subject to choose a random moment to flick their wrist while he measured the associated activity in their brain in particular the build up of electrical signal called the readiness potential after german bereitschaftspotential which was discovered by kornhuber deecke in 1965 203 although it was well known that the readiness potential reliably preceded the physical action libet asked whether it could be recorded before the conscious intention to move to determine when subjects felt the intention to move he asked them to watch the second hand of a clock after making a movement the volunteer reported the time on the clock when they first felt the conscious intention to move this became known as libet s w time 204 libet found that the unconscious brain activity of the readiness potential leading up to subjects movements began approximately half a second before the subject was aware of a conscious intention to move 204 205 these studies of the timing between actions and the conscious decision bear upon the role of the brain in understanding free will a subject s declaration of intention to move a finger appears after the brain has begun to implement the action suggesting to some that unconsciously the brain has made the decision before the conscious mental act to do so some believe the implication is that free will was not involved in the decision and is an illusion the first of these experiments reported the brain registered activity related to the move about 0 2 s before movement onset 206 however these authors also found that awareness of action was anticipatory to activity in the muscle underlying the movement the entire process resulting in action involves more steps than just the onset of brain activity the bearing of these results upon notions of free will appears complex 207 208 some argue that placing the question of free will in the context of motor control is too narrow the objection is that the time scales involved in motor control are very short and motor control involves a great deal of unconscious action with much physical movement entirely unconscious on that basis free will cannot be squeezed into time frames of 150 350 ms free will is a longer term phenomenon and free will is a higher level activity that cannot be captured in a description of neural activity or of muscle activation 209 the bearing of timing experiments upon free will is still under discussion more studies have since been conducted including some that try to support libet s original findings suggest that the cancelling or veto of an action may first arise subconsciously as well explain the underlying brain structures involved suggest models that explain the relationship between conscious intention and action benjamin libet s results are quoted 210 in favor of epiphenomenalism but he believes subjects still have a conscious veto since the readiness potential does not invariably lead to an action in freedom evolves daniel dennett argues that a no free will conclusion is based on dubious assumptions about the location of consciousness as well as questioning the accuracy and interpretation of libet s results kornhuber and deecke underlined that absence of conscious will during the early bereitschaftspotential termed bp1 is not a proof of the non existence of free will as also unconscious agendas may be free and non deterministic according to their suggestion man has relative freedom i e freedom in degrees that can be increased or decreased through deliberate choices that involve both conscious and unconscious panencephalic processes 211 others have argued that data such as the bereitschaftspotential undermine epiphenomenalism for the same reason that such experiments rely on a subject reporting the point in time at which a conscious experience occurs thus relying on the subject to be able to consciously perform an action that ability would seem to be at odds with early epiphenomenalism which according to huxley is the broad claim that consciousness is completely without any power as the steam whistle which accompanies the work of a locomotive engine is without influence upon its machinery 212 adrian g guggisberg and annaïs mottaz have also challenged those findings 213 a study by aaron schurger and colleagues published in the proceedings of the national academy of sciences 214 challenged assumptions about the causal nature of the readiness potential itself and the pre movement buildup of neural activity in general casting doubt on conclusions drawn from studies such as libet s 204 and fried s 215 studies by neurosurgeon rickard l sjöberg of patients in whom the brain region that gives rise to the readiness potential the sma and pre sma has been resected demonstrate profound effects on the ability to execute voluntary actions but not on the subjective sense of wanting or deciding to do so undermining one popular interpretation of the libet experiment 216 217 a study that compared deliberate and arbitrary decisions found that the early signs of decision are absent for the deliberate ones 218 for example people with tourette syndrome and related tic disorders make involuntary movements and utterances called tics despite the fact that they would prefer not to do so when it is socially inappropriate tics are described as semi voluntary or unvoluntary 219 because they are not strictly involuntary they may be experienced as a voluntary response to an unwanted premonitory urge tics are experienced as irresistible and must eventually be expressed 219 people with tourette syndrome are sometimes able to suppress their tics for limited periods but doing so often results in an explosion of tics afterward the control exerted from seconds to hours at a time may merely postpone and exacerbate the ultimate expression of the tic 220 in alien hand syndrome the affected individual s limb will produce unintentional movements without the will of the person the affected limb effectively demonstrates a will of its own the sense of agency does not emerge in conjunction with the overt appearance of the purposeful act even though the sense of ownership in relationship to the body part is maintained this phenomenon corresponds with an impairment in the premotor mechanism manifested temporally by the appearance of the readiness potential recordable on the scalp several hundred milliseconds before the overt appearance of a spontaneous willed movement using functional magnetic resonance imaging with specialized multivariate analyses to study the temporal dimension in the activation of the cortical network associated with voluntary movement in human subjects an anterior to posterior sequential activation process beginning in the supplementary motor area on the medial surface of the frontal lobe and progressing to the primary motor cortex and then to parietal cortex has been observed 221 the sense of agency thus appears to normally emerge in conjunction with this orderly sequential network activation incorporating premotor association cortices together with primary motor cortex in particular the supplementary motor complex on the medial surface of the frontal lobe appears to activate prior to primary motor cortex presumably in associated with a preparatory pre movement process in a recent study using functional magnetic resonance imaging alien movements were characterized by a relatively isolated activation of the primary motor cortex contralateral to the alien hand while voluntary movements of the same body part included the natural activation of motor association cortex associated with the premotor process 222 the clinical definition requires feeling that one limb is foreign or has a will of its own together with observable involuntary motor activity emphasis in original 223 this syndrome is often a result of damage to the corpus callosum either when it is severed to treat intractable epilepsy or due to a stroke the standard neurological explanation is that the felt will reported by the speaking left hemisphere does not correspond with the actions performed by the non speaking right hemisphere thus suggesting that the two hemispheres may have independent senses of will 224 225 in addition one of the most important first rank diagnostic symptoms of schizophrenia is the patient s delusion of being controlled by an external force 226 people with schizophrenia will sometimes report that although they are acting in the world they do not recall initiating the particular actions they performed this is sometimes likened to being a robot controlled by someone else although the neural mechanisms of schizophrenia are not yet clear one influential hypothesis is that there is a breakdown in brain systems that compare motor commands with the feedback received from the body known as proprioception leading to attendant hallucinations and delusions of control 227 experimental psychology edit see also cognitive science cognitive psychology and neuroscience experimental psychology s contributions to the free will debate have come primarily through social psychologist daniel wegner s work on conscious will in his book the illusion of conscious will 228 wegner summarizes what he believes is empiric...
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