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sm developed out of the historical vedic religion it is loosely known as brahmanism because of the religious and legal importance it places on the brāhmaṇa priestly class of society according to witzel 1995 this development started around 1000 bce in the kuru kingdom with the brahmins providing elaborate rituals to enhance the status of the kuru kings 1 2 see also ghurye 1980 pp 3 4 he j h hutton the commissioner of the census of 1931 considers modern hinduism to be the result of an amalgam between pre aryan indian beliefs of mediterranean inspiration and the religion of the rigveda the tribal religions present as it were surplus material not yet built into the temple of hinduism zimmer 1951 pp 218 219 sjoberg 1990 p 43 quote tyler 1973 india an anthropological perspective p 68 the hindu synthesis was less the dialectical reduction of orthodoxy and heterodoxy than the resurgence of the ancient aboriginal indus civilization in this process the rude barbaric aryan tribes were gradually civilised and eventually merged with the autochthonous dravidians although elements of their domestic cult and ritualism were jealously preserved by brahman priests the body of their culture survived only in fragmentary tales and allegories embedded in vast syncretistic compendia on the whole the aryan contribution to indian culture is insignificant the essential pattern of indian culture was already established in the third millennium b c and the form of indian civilization perdured and eventually reasserted itself sjoberg 1990 flood 1996 p 16 contemporary hinduism cannot be traced to a common origin the many traditions which feed into contemporary hinduism can be subsumed under three broad headings the tradition of brahmanical orthopraxy the renouncer traditions and popular or local traditions the tradition of brahmanical orthopraxy has played the role of master narrative transmitting a body of knowledge and behaviour through time and defining the conditions of orthopraxy such as adherence to varnasramadharma nath 2001 werner 1998 werner 2005 pp 8 9 lockard 2007 p 50 hiltebeitel 2002 hopfe woodward 2008 p 79 the religion that the aryans brought with them mingled with the religion of the native people and the culture that developed between them became classical hinduism samuel 2010 1 2 among its roots are the vedic religion of the late vedic period flood 1996 p 16 and its emphasis on the status of brahmans samuel 2008 pp 48 53 but also the religions of the indus valley civilisation narayanan 2009 p 11 lockard 2007 p 52 hiltebeitel 2002 p 3 jones ryan 2007 p xviii the śramaṇa or renouncer traditions of northeastern india flood 1996 p 16 gomez 2013 p 42 with possible roots in a non vedic indo aryan culture bronkhorst 2007 and popular or local traditions flood 1996 p 16 and prehistoric cultures that thrived in south asia long before the creation of textual evidence that we can decipher with any confidence doniger 2010 p 66 the indo aryan word sindhu means river ocean 37 it is frequently being used in the rigveda the sindhu area is part of āryāvarta the land of the aryans in the contemporary era the term hindus are individuals who identify with one or more aspects of hinduism whether they are practising or non practising or laissez faire 54 the term does not include those who identify with other indian religions such as buddhism jainism sikhism or various animist tribal religions found in india such as sarnaism 55 the term hindu in contemporary parlance includes people who accept themselves as culturally or ethnically hindu rather than with a fixed set of religious beliefs within hinduism one need not be religious in the minimal sense states julius lipner to be accepted as hindu by hindus or to describe oneself as hindu 56 in d n jha s essay looking for a hindu identity he writes no indians described themselves as hindus before the fourteenth century and hinduism was a creation of the colonial period and cannot lay claim to any great antiquity 61 he further wrote the british borrowed the word hindu from india gave it a new meaning and significance and reimported it into india as a reified phenomenon called hinduism 62 sweetman mentions halbfass 1988 india and europe sontheimer 1989 hinduism reconsidered ronald inden imagining india carol breckenridge and peter van der veer orientalism and the postcolonial predicament vasudha dalmia and heinrich von stietencron representing hinduism s n balagangadhara the heathen in his blindness thomas trautmann aryans and british india king 1999 orientalism and religion see rajiv malhotra and being different for a critic who gained widespread attention outside the academia invading the sacred and hindu studies the term sanatana dharma and its vedic roots had another context in the colonial era particularly the early 19th century through movements such as the brahmo samaj and the arya samaj these movements particularly active in british and french colonies outside india such as in africa and the caribbean interpreted hinduism to be a monotheistic religion and attempted to demonstrate that vis à vis christianity and islam their views were opposed by other hindus such as the sanatan dharma sabha of 1895 109 lipner quotes brockington 1981 the sacred tread p 5 pennington 153 describes the circumstances in which early impressions of hinduism were reported by colonial era missionaries missionary reports from india also reflected the experience of foreigners in a land whose native inhabitants and british rulers often resented their presence their accounts of hinduism were forged in physically politically and spiritually hostile surroundings impoverished famine prone bengal now west bengal and bangladesh plagued with anxieties and fears about their own health regularly reminded of colleagues who had lost their lives or reason uncertain of their own social location and preaching to crowds whose reactions ranged from indifference to amusement to hostility missionaries found expression for their darker misgivings in their production of what is surely part of their speckled legacy a fabricated hinduism crazed by blood lust and devoted to the service of devils sweetman 2004 p 13 identifies several areas in which there is substantial if not universal an agreement that colonialism influenced the study of hinduism even if the degree of this influence is debated the wish of european orientalists to establish a textual basis for hinduism akin to the protestant culture sweetman 2004 p 13 which was also driven by preference among the colonial powers for written authority rather than oral authority sweetman 2004 p 13 the influence of brahmins on european conceptions of hinduism sweetman 2004 p 13 t he identification of vedanta more specifically advaita vedanta as the paradigmatic example of the mystical nature of the hindu religion sweetman 2004 p 13 sweetman cites king 1999 p 128 several factors led to the favouring of vedanta as the central philosophy of the hindus sweetman 2004 pp 13 14 according to niranjan dhar s theory that vedanta was favoured because british feared french influence especially the impact of the french revolution and ronald inden s theory that advaita vedanta was portrayed as illusionist pantheism reinforcing the colonial stereotypical construction of hinduism as indifferent to ethics and life negating sweetman 2004 pp 13 14 the amenability of vedantic thought to both christian and hindu critics of idolatry in other forms of hinduism sweetman 2004 p 14 the colonial constructions of caste as being part of hinduism sweetman 2004 pp 14 16 according to nicholas dirks theory that caste was refigured as a religious system organising society in a context where politics and religion had never before been distinct domains of social action sweetman cites dirks 2001 p xxvii t he construction of hinduism in the image of christianity sweetman 2004 p 15 anti colonial hindus sweetman 2004 pp 15 16 looking toward the systematisation of disparate practices as a means of recovering a pre colonial national identity sweetman 2004 p 15 sweetman cites viswanathan 2003 p 26 many scholars have presented pre colonial common denominators and asserted the importance of ancient hindu textual sources in medieval and pre colonial times klaus witz 156 states that hindu bhakti movement ideas in the medieval era grew on the foundation of upanishadic knowledge and vedanta philosophies john henderson 157 states that hindus both in medieval and in modern times have been particularly drawn to those canonical texts and philosophical schools such as the bhagavad gita and vedanta which seem to synthesize or reconcile most successfully diverse philosophical teachings and sectarian points of view thus this widely recognised attribute of indian culture may be traced to the exegetical orientation of medieval hindu commentarial traditions especially vedanta patrick olivelle 158 and others 159 160 161 state that the central ideas of the upanishads in the vedic corpus are at the spiritual core of hindus according to jones ryan 2007 p 474 the followers of vaishnavism are many fewer than those of shaivism numbering perhaps 200 million 182 dubious discuss sometimes with lakshmi the spouse of vishnu or as narayana and sri 183 rigveda is not only the oldest among the vedas but is one of the earliest indo european texts according to bhavishya purana brahmaparva adhyaya 7 there are four sources of dharma śruti vedas smṛti dharmaśāstras puranas śiṣṭa āchāra sadāchara conduct of noble people and finally ātma tuṣṭi self satisfaction from the sloka वेदः स्मृतिः सदाचारः स्वस्य च प्रियमात्मनः एतच्चतुर्विधं प्राहुः साक्षाद्धर्मस्य लक्षणम् web 10 vedaḥ smṛtiḥ sadācāraḥ svasya ca priyamātmanah etaccaturvidham prāhuḥ sākshāddharmasya lakshaṇam bhavishya purāṇa brahmaparva adhyāya 7 the meaning is vedas smritis good approved tradition and what is agreeable to one s self conscience the wise have declared to be the four direct evidences of dharma for translation of deva in singular noun form as a deity god and in plural form as the gods or the heavenly or shining ones see monier williams 2001 p 492 for translation of devatā as godhead divinity see monier williams 2001 p 495 among some regional hindus such as rajputs these are called kuldevis or kuldevata 319 klostermaier brahman derived from the root bŗh to grow to become great was originally identical with the vedic word that makes people prosper words were the pricipan means to approach the gods who dwelled in a different sphere it was not a big step from this notion of reified speech act to that of the speech act being looked at implicitly and explicitly as a means to an end klostermaier 2007 p 55 quotes madhav m deshpande 1990 changing conceptions of the veda from speech acts to magical sounds p 4 the cremation ashes are called phool flowers these are collected from the pyre in a rite of passage called asthi sanchayana then dispersed during asthi visarjana this signifies redemption of the dead in waters considered to be sacred and a closure for the living tirtha locations offer these services 415 416 among its roots are the vedic religion 130 of the late vedic period and its emphasis on the status of brahmans 514 but also the religions of the indus valley civilisation 67 515 28 the śramaṇa 516 or renouncer traditions 130 of east india 516 and popular or local traditions 130 there is no exact dating possible for the beginning of the vedic period witzel mentions a range between 1900 and 1400 bce 518 flood mentions 1500 bce 519 according to sharma the concept of missionary conversion either way is anathema to the precepts of hinduism 538 hinduism is the fastest growing religion in russia ghana and united states this was due to the influence of the iskcon and the migration of hindus in these nations 539 in western nations the growth of hinduism has been very fast and is the second fastest growing religion in europe after islam 540 réunion is not a country but an overseas department and region of france 1 2 smith 1963 pp 65 66 my point and i think that this is the first step that one must take towards understanding something of the vision of hindus is that the mass of religious phenomena that we shelter under the umbrella of that term is not a unity and does not aspire to be brodd et al 2018 p 92 hinduism has neither a single founder nor a single sacred book there is no single historical event that marks its birth the history of hinduism embodies both continuity and change having never had a sole central authority hinduism s fluid character has always allowed it to adapt to a variety of social and cultural contexts this diversity has led many scholars to argue that hinduism is not one religion at all but a constellation of many religious sects that share some common aspects others see enough by way of common beliefs and practices to regard hinduism as a single religious tradition 1 2 there is no single word translation for dharma in western languages widgery 1930 rocher 2003 the oxford dictionary of world religions dharma defines dharma as follows the order and custom which make life and a universe possible and thus to the behaviours appropriate to the maintenance of that order see dharma righteousness ethics hindu dharma refers to the religious behaviours and attitudes of the various traditions collectively referred to as hinduism thomas 2012 p 175 some hindus refer to this agglomeration of religious forms as hindu dharma dharma here standing loosely for religion but that is only to enable them to communicate to westerners some of their own religious attitudes bhattacharya 2006 p 1 dharma therefore is just not a belief but righteous living flood 2003a p 4 this revelation of the veda s verses believed to have been revealed to and heard by sruti the ancient sages rsi as symbol and legitimizing reference if not actual text is central as a constraining influence on later traditions providing the authority for tradition oberhammer 1997 21 31 some would argue that this is a defining feature of hinduism references this article contains one or more duplicated citations the reason given is duplicatereferences script detected https www pewforum org 2012 12 18 global religious landscape hindu refs 31 180 https repositories lib utexas edu handle 2152 3945 refs 244 287 it is recommended to use named references to consolidate citations that are used multiple times august 2026 learn how and when to remove this message hinduism merriam webster com dictionary merriam webster oclc 1032680871 retrieved 19 april 2021 lochtefeld 2002a flood 2022 p 339 holberg 2000 p 316 nicholson 2013 pp 2 5 mcdaniel 2007 pp 52 53 michaels 2004 p 21 flood 2003a p 9 thomas 2012 p 175 bhattacharya 2006 wimberley 2009 p 99 klostermaier 1989 p 16 chung 2022 p 183 lipner 1998 p 2 olivelle 2009 p 489 sharma 2011 p 124 varghese 2008 p 743 monier williams 1891 p 20 raju 1989 p 147 1 2 3 michaels 2004 1 2 klostermaier 2007 pp 46 52 76 77 zaehner 1992 pp 1 7 1 2...
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