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an others armenian european paleo balkan albanian illyrian thracian dacian greek roman celtic irish scottish breton welsh cornish germanic anglo saxon continental norse baltic latvian lithuanian slavic practices fire rituals horse sacrifice sati winter solstice yule indo european studies scholars marija gimbutas j p mallory institutes copenhagen studies in indo european publications encyclopedia of indo european culture the horse the wheel and language journal of indo european studies indogermanisches etymologisches wörterbuch indo european etymological dictionary category v t e hinduism ˈ h ɪ n d u ˌ ɪ z əm 1 is an umbrella term 2 3 a for a range of indian religious and spiritual traditions sampradaya s 4 note 1 that are unified by adherence to dharma a cosmic order maintained by its followers through rituals and righteous living 5 b as expounded in the vedas c the word hindu originated as an exonym note 2 and while hinduism has been called the oldest surviving religion in the world note 3 it is also described since the 19th century by the term sanātana dharma lit eternal dharma note 4 vaidika dharma lit vedic dharma 6 and arya dharma are historical endonyms for hinduism 7 hinduism entails diverse systems of thought marked by a range of shared concepts that discuss theology mythology and other topics in textual sources 8 hindu texts have been classified into śruti lit heard and smṛti lit remembered the major hindu scriptures are the vedas the upanishads the puranas the ramayana the mahabharata including the bhagavad gita and the agamas 9 10 prominent themes in hindu beliefs include karma action intent and consequences 9 11 saṃsāra the cycle of death and rebirth and the four puruṣārthas proper goals or aims of human life namely dharma ethics duties artha prosperity work kama desires passions and moksha liberation emancipation from passions and ultimately saṃsāra 12 13 14 hindu religious practices include devotion bhakti worship puja sacrificial rites yajna meditation dhyana and yoga 15 hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many hindus do not claim to belong to any denomination 16 however scholarly studies recognise four major denominations vaishnavism shaivism shaktism and smartism 17 18 the six āstika schools of hindu philosophy that recognise the authority of the vedas are sankhya yoga nyaya vaisheshika mīmāṃsā and vedanta 19 20 while the traditional itihasa purana and its derived epic puranic chronology present hinduism as a tradition existing for thousands of years scholars regard hinduism as a fusion note 5 or synthesis note 6 of brahmanical orthopraxy note 7 with various indian cultures note 8 having diverse roots note 9 and no specific founder 21 this hindu synthesis emerged after the vedic period between c 500 22 to 200 23 bce and c 300 ce 22 in the period of the second urbanisation and the early classical period of hinduism when the epics and the first purānas were composed 22 23 it flourished in the medieval period with the decline of buddhism in india 24 since the 19th century modern hinduism influenced by western culture has acquired a great appeal in the west notably reflected in the popularisation of yoga and various sects such as transcendental meditation and the iskcon s hare krishna movement 25 hinduism is the world s third largest religion and considered the largest ethnic religion with approximately 1 17 billion followers or around 15 of the global population 26 27 known as hindus largely in india 28 nepal mauritius and in bali indonesia 29 significant numbers of hindu communities are found in the countries of south asia in southeast asia in the caribbean middle east north america europe oceania africa and australia 30 31 32 web 1 web 2 etymology further information hindu the word hindū is an exonym 33 derived from the sanskrit word sindhu 34 the name of the indus river as well as the country of the lower indus basin sindh 35 36 note 10 the proto iranian sound change s h occurred between 850 and 600 bce 38 hindu occurs in avesta as heptahindu equivalent to rigvedic sapta sindhu 39 the 6th century bce inscription of darius i mentions hindush referring to sindh among his provinces 40 41 hindustan spelt hndstn is found in a sasanian inscription from the 3rd century ce 39 the term hindu in these ancient records is a geographical term and did not refer to a religion 42 in arabic texts hind a derivative of persian hindu was used to refer to the land beyond the indus 43 and therefore all the people in that land were hindus according to historian romila thapar 44 by the 13th century hindustan emerged as a popular alternative name of india or northern india 45 46 47 among the earliest known records of hindu with connotations of religion may be in the 7th century ce chinese text record of the western regions by xuanzang 40 in the 14th century hindu appeared in several texts in persian sanskrit and prakrit within india and subsequently in vernacular languages often in comparative contexts to contrast them with muslims or turks examples include the 14th century persian text futuhu s salatin by abd al malik isami note 2 jain texts such as vividha tirtha kalpa and vidyatilaka 48 circa 1400 apabhramsa text kīrttilatā by vidyapati 49 16 18th century bengali gaudiya vaishnava texts 50 etc these native usages of hindu were borrowed from persian and they did not always have a religious connotation but they often did 51 in indian texts hindu dharma hindu religion was often used to refer to hinduism 50 52 starting in the 17th century european merchants and colonists adopted hindu often with the english spelling hindoo to refer to residents of india as a religious community 53 note 11 the term got increasingly associated with the practices of brahmins who were also referred to as gentiles and gentoos 53 terms such as hindoo faith and hindoo religion were often used eventually leading to the appearance of hindooism in a letter of charles grant in 1787 who used it along with hindu religion 57 the first indian to use hinduism may have been raja ram mohan roy in 1816 17 58 by the 1840s the term hinduism was used by those indians who opposed british colonialism and who wanted to distinguish themselves from muslims and christians 59 before the british began to categorise communities strictly by religion indians generally did not define themselves exclusively through their religious beliefs instead identities were largely segmented on the basis of locality language varna jāti occupation and sect 60 note 12 definitions hinduism is an umbrella term 63 referring to a broad range of sometimes opposite and often competitive traditions 64 in western ethnography the term refers to the fusion note 5 or synthesis note 6 65 of various indian cultures and traditions 66 note 8 with diverse roots 67 note 9 and no founder 21 this hindu synthesis emerged after the vedic period between c 500 22 200 23 bce and c 300 ce 22 in the period of the second urbanisation and the early classical period of hinduism when the epics and the first puranas were composed 22 23 it flourished in the medieval period with the decline of buddhism in india 24 hinduism s variations in belief and its broad range of traditions make it difficult to define as a religion according to traditional western conceptions 68 hinduism includes a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions hindus can be polytheistic pantheistic panentheistic pandeistic henotheistic monotheistic monistic agnostic atheistic or humanist 69 70 according to mahatma gandhi a man may not believe in god and still call himself a hindu 71 according to wendy doniger ideas about all the major issues of faith and lifestyle vegetarianism nonviolence belief in rebirth even caste are subjects of debate not dogma 60 because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term hinduism arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult 42 the religion defies our desire to define and categorize it 72 hinduism has been variously defined as a religion a religious tradition a set of religious beliefs and a way of life 73 note 1 from a western lexical standpoint hinduism like other faiths is appropriately referred to as a religion in india the term hindu dharma is used which is broader than the western term religion and refers to the religious attitudes and behaviours the right way to live as preserved and transmitted in the various traditions collectively referred to as hinduism 74 75 76 b the study of india and its cultures and religions and the definition of hinduism has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by western notions of religion 77 78 since the 1990s those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of hinduism 77 note 13 and have also been taken over by critics of the western view on india 79 note 14 typology om a stylised letter of the devanagari script used as a religious symbol in hinduism main article hindu denominations hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents of the historical division into six darsanas philosophies two schools vedanta and yoga are currently the most prominent 80 the six āstika schools of hindu philosophy which recognise the authority of the vedas are sānkhya yoga nyāya vaisheshika mimāmsā and vedānta 19 20 classified by primary deity or deities four major hinduism modern currents are vaishnavism god vishnu shaivism god shiva shaktism goddess adi shakti and in smartism worshipped five deities treated as equals 81 82 17 18 hinduism also accepts numerous divine beings with many hindus considering the deities to be aspects or manifestations of a single impersonal absolute or ultimate reality or supreme god while some hindus maintain that a specific deity represents the supreme and various deities are lower manifestations of this supreme 83 other notable characteristics include a belief in the existence of ātman self reincarnation of one s ātman and karma as well as a belief in dharma duties rights laws conduct virtues and right way of living although variation exists with some not following these beliefs june mcdaniel 2007 classifies hinduism into six major kinds and numerous minor kinds in order to understand the expression of emotions among the hindus 84 the major kinds according to mcdaniel are folk hinduism based on local traditions and cults of local deities and is the oldest non literate system vedic hinduism based on the earliest layers of the vedas traceable to the 2nd millennium bce vedantic hinduism based on the philosophy of the upanishads including advaita vedanta emphasising knowledge and wisdom yogic hinduism following the text of yoga sutras of patanjali emphasising introspective awareness dharmic hinduism or daily morality which mcdaniel states is stereotyped in some books as the only form of hindu religion with a belief in karma cows and caste and bhakti or devotional hinduism where intense emotions are elaborately incorporated in the pursuit of the spiritual 84 michaels distinguishes three hindu religions and four forms of hindu religiosity 85 the three hindu religions are brahmanic sanskritic hinduism folk religions and tribal religions and founded religions 86 the four forms of hindu religiosity are the classical karma marga 87 jnana marga 88 bhakti marga 88 and heroism which is rooted in militaristic traditions these militaristic traditions include ramaism the worship of a hero of epic literature rama believing him to be an incarnation of vishnu 89 and parts of political hinduism 87 heroism is also called virya marga 88 according to michaels one out of nine hindu belongs by birth to one or both of the brahmanic sanskritic hinduism and folk religion typology whether practising or non practicing he classifies most hindus as belonging by choice to one of the founded religions such as vaishnavism and shaivism that are moksha focussed and often de emphasise brahman brahmin priestly authority yet incorporate ritual grammar of brahmanic sanskritic hinduism 90 he includes among founded religions buddhism jainism sikhism that are now distinct religions syncretic movements such as brahmo samaj and the theosophical society as well as various guru isms and new religious movements such as maharishi mahesh yogi baps and iskcon 91 inden states that the attempt to classify hinduism by typology started in the imperial times when proselytising missionaries and colonial officials sought to understand and portray hinduism from their interests 92 hinduism was construed as emanating not from a reason of spirit but fantasy and creative imagination not conceptual but symbolical not ethical but emotive not rational or spiritual but of cognitive mysticism this stereotype followed and fit states inden with the imperial imperatives of the era providing the moral justification for the colonial project 92 from tribal animism to buddhism everything was subsumed as part of hinduism the early reports set the tradition and scholarly premises for the typology of hinduism as well as the major assumptions and flawed presuppositions that have been at the foundation of indology hinduism according to inden has been neither what imperial religionists stereotyped it to be nor is it appropriate to equate hinduism to be merely the monist pantheism and philosophical idealism of advaita vedanta 92 some academics suggest that hinduism can be seen as a category with fuzzy edges rather than as a well defined and rigid entity some forms of religious expression are central to hinduism and others while not as central still remain within the category based on this idea gabriella eichinger ferro luzzi has developed a prototype theory approach to the definition of hinduism 93 sanātana dharma see also sanātanī srirangam ranganathaswamy temple dedicated to the hindu deity vishnu is said to be worshiped by ikshvaku and the descendants of ikshvaku vamsam 94 95 96 to its adherents hinduism is a traditional way of life 97 many practitioners refer to the orthodox form of hinduism as sanātana dharma the eternal law or the eternal way 98 99 hindus regard hinduism to be thousands of years old the puranic chronology as narrated in the mahabharata ramayana and the puranas envisions a timeline of events related to hinduism starting well before 3000 bce the word dharma is used here to mean religion similar to modern indo aryan languages rather than with its original sanskrit meaning all aspects of a hindu life namely acquiring wealth artha fulfilment of desires kama and attaining liberation moksha are viewed here as part of dharma which encapsulates the right way of living and eternal harmonious principles in their fulfilment 100 101 the use of the term sanātana dharma for hinduism is a modern usage based on the belief that the origins of hinduism lie beyond human history 102 103 104 105 sanātana dharma refers to timeless eternal set of truths and this is how hindus view the origins of their religion 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