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729, 715, gudde, nicholas, 0954, 4070, 0954407016680522, 232, institution, mechanical, adaptation, recommended, 192, dion, andrea, cfrn, surpasses, latest, census, smargiassi, audrey, kosatsky, tom, hicks, plante, céline, armstrong, ben, villeneuve, paul, goudreau, sophie, 659, 19440507, 2679612, 1289, ehp, 0800010, 2009envhp, 653s, 653, asthmatic, episodes, children, stack, montreal, flower, ragas, wade, 338, 0896, 5803, 10835547, 12090756, estate, neighborhood, property, values, refiniries, hargreaves, steve, cnn, money, crunch, morata, thais, engel, terry, durão, alvaro, thelma, krieg, edward, dunn, derek, lozano, maria, angelica, 9309809, 0105, 0397, 3109, 01050399709074987, scandinavian, audiology, suez, solids, cheresources, flowchart, chevron, sons, mineral, resource, month, bernhard, unserer, zeit, issue, 378, 392, der, prozess, reich, jahren, und, bedeutender, denn, recovered, loren, zawacki, 1978, assigned, 4080424, arthur, kohl, nielson, 220, liu, subramani, velu, chunshan, stefanidakis, gwyn, 1993
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r the viscosity of the oil all of the many other refining processes discussed below were developed during the war or within a few years after the war they became commercially available within 5 to 10 years after the war ended and the worldwide petroleum industry experienced very rapid growth the driving force for that growth in technology and in the number and size of refineries worldwide was the growing demand for automotive gasoline and aircraft fuel citation needed in the united states for various complex economic and political reasons the construction of new refineries came to a virtual stop in about the 1980s however many of the existing refineries in the united states have revamped many of their units and or constructed add on units in order to increase their crude oil processing capacity increase the octane rating of their product gasoline lower the sulfur content of their diesel fuel and home heating fuels to comply with environmental regulations and comply with environmental air pollution and water pollution requirements baton rouge refinery the sixth largest in the united states 21 united states edit main article petroleum refining in the united states refinery bayport industrial complex harris county texas in the 19th century refineries in the u s processed crude oil primarily to recover the kerosene there was no market for the more volatile fraction including gasoline which was considered waste and was often dumped directly into the nearest river the invention of the automobile shifted demand to gasoline and diesel which remain the primary refined products today 22 today national and state legislation require refineries to meet stringent air and water cleanliness standards in fact oil companies in the u s perceive obtaining a permit to build a modern refinery to be so difficult and costly that no new refineries were built though many have been expanded in the u s from 1976 until 2014 when the small dakota prairie refinery in north dakota began operation 23 more than half the refineries that existed in 1981 are now closed due to low utilization rates and accelerating mergers 24 as a result of these closures total us refinery capacity fell between 1981 and 1995 though the operating capacity stayed fairly constant in that time period at around 15 000 000 barrels per day 2 400 000 m 3 d 25 increases in facility size and improvements in efficiencies have offset much of the lost physical capacity of the industry in 1982 the earliest data provided the united states operated 301 refineries with a combined capacity of 17 9 million barrels 2 850 000 m 3 of crude oil each calendar day in 2010 there were 149 operable u s refineries with a combined capacity of 17 6 million barrels 2 800 000 m 3 per calendar day 26 by 2014 the number of refineries had decreased to 140 but the total capacity increased to 18 02 million barrels 2 865 000 m 3 per calendar day to reduce operating costs and depreciation refining is operated in fewer sites but of bigger capacity citation needed in 2009 through 2010 as revenue streams in the oil business dried up and profitability of oil refineries fell due to lower demand for product and high reserves of supply preceding the economic recession oil companies began to close or sell the less profitable refineries 27 operation edit neste oil refinery in porvoo finland the oil refinery in haifa israel is capable of processing about 9 million tons 66 million barrels of crude oil a year its two cooling towers are landmarks of the city s skyline raw or unprocessed crude oil is not generally useful in industrial applications although light sweet low viscosity low sulfur crude oil has been used directly as a burner fuel to produce steam for the propulsion of seagoing vessels citation needed the lighter elements however form explosive vapors in the fuel tanks and are therefore hazardous especially in warships citation needed the hundreds of different hydrocarbon molecules in crude oil are separated in a refinery into components that can be used as fuels lubricants and feedstocks in petrochemical processes that manufacture such products as plastics detergents solvents elastomers and fibers such as nylon and polyesters petroleum fossil fuels are burned in internal combustion engines to provide power for ships automobiles aircraft engines lawn mowers dirt bikes and other machines different boiling points allow the hydrocarbons to be separated by distillation since the lighter liquid products are in great demand for use in internal combustion engines a modern refinery will convert heavy hydrocarbons and lighter gaseous elements into these higher value products 28 oil can be used in a variety of ways because it contains hydrocarbons of varying molecular masses forms and lengths such as paraffins aromatics naphthenes or cycloalkanes alkenes dienes and alkynes 29 while the molecules in crude oil include different atoms such as sulfur and nitrogen the hydrocarbons are the most common form of molecules which are molecules of varying lengths and complexity made of hydrogen and carbon atoms and a small number of oxygen atoms the differences in the structure of these molecules account for their varying physical and chemical properties and it is this variety that makes crude oil useful in a broad range of several applications once separated and purified of any contaminants and impurities the fuel or lubricant can be sold without further processing smaller molecules such as isobutane and propylene or butylenes can be recombined to meet specific octane requirements by processes such as alkylation or more commonly dimerization the octane grade of gasoline can also be improved by catalytic reforming which involves removing hydrogen from hydrocarbons producing compounds with higher octane ratings such as aromatics intermediate products such as gasoils can even be reprocessed to break a heavy long chained oil into a lighter short chained one by various forms of cracking such as fluid catalytic cracking thermal cracking and hydrocracking the final step in gasoline production is the blending of fuels with different octane ratings vapor pressures and other properties to meet product specifications another method for reprocessing and upgrading these intermediate products residual oils uses a devolatilization process to separate usable oil from the waste asphaltene material certain cracked streams are particularly suitable to produce petrochemicals includes polypropylene heavier polymers and block polymers based on the molecular weight and the characteristics of the olefin specie that is cracked from the source feedstock 30 oil refineries are large scale plants processing about a hundred thousand to several hundred thousand barrels of crude oil a day because of the high capacity many of the units operate continuously as opposed to processing in batches at steady state or nearly steady state for months to years the high capacity also makes process optimization and advanced process control very desirable citation needed major products edit this section needs more citations please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed may 2026 learn how and when to remove this message crude oil is separated into fractions by fractional distillation the fractions at the top of the fractionating column have lower boiling points than the fractions at the bottom the heavy bottom fractions are often cracked into lighter more useful products all of the fractions are processed further in other refining units a breakdown of the products made from a typical barrel of us oil 31 petroleum products are materials derived from crude oil petroleum as it is processed in oil refineries the majority of petroleum is converted to petroleum products which includes several classes of fuels 32 oil refineries also produce various intermediate products such as hydrogen light hydrocarbons reformate and pyrolysis gasoline these are not usually transported but instead are blended or processed further on site chemical plants are thus often adjacent to oil refineries or a number of further chemical processes are integrated into it for example light hydrocarbons are steam cracked in an ethylene plant and the produced ethylene is polymerized to produce polyethene citation needed to ensure both proper separation and environmental protection a very low sulfur content is necessary in all but the heaviest products the crude sulfur contaminant is transformed to hydrogen sulfide via catalytic hydrodesulfurization and removed from the product stream via amine gas treating using the claus process hydrogen sulfide is afterward transformed to elemental sulfur to be sold to the chemical industry the rather large heat energy freed by this process is directly used in the other parts of the refinery often an electrical power plant is combined into the whole refinery process to take up the excess heat according to the composition of the crude oil and depending on the demands of the market refineries can produce different shares of petroleum products the largest share of oil products is used as energy carriers i e various grades of fuel oil and gasoline these fuels include or can be blended to give gasoline jet fuel diesel fuel heating oil and heavier fuel oils heavier less volatile fractions can also be used to produce asphalt tar paraffin wax lubricating and other heavy oils refineries also produce other chemicals some of which are used in chemical processes to produce plastics and other useful materials since petroleum often contains a few percent sulfur containing molecules elemental sulfur is also often produced as a petroleum product carbon in the form of petroleum coke and hydrogen may also be produced as petroleum products the hydrogen produced is often used as an intermediate product for other oil refinery processes such as hydrocracking and hydrodesulfurization 33 categories of petroleum products edit light distillates edit fuel gas is one of a number of fuels that under ordinary conditions are gaseous most fuel gases are composed of hydrocarbons such as methane and propane hydrogen carbon monoxide or mixtures thereof such gases are sources of energy that can be readily transmitted and distributed through pipes liquefied petroleum gas also referred to as liquid petroleum gas lpg or lp gas is a fuel gas which contains a flammable mixture of hydrocarbon gases specifically propane butane and isobutane it can also contain some propylene butylene and isobutylene 34 35 36 37 38 naphtha ˈ n æ f θ ə more rarely ˈ n æ p θ ə 39 is a flammable liquid hydrocarbon mixture generally it is a fraction of crude oil but it can also be produced from natural gas condensates petroleum distillates and the fractional distillation of coal tar and peat in some industries and regions the name naphtha refers to crude oil or refined petroleum products such as kerosene or diesel fuel gasoline north american english or petrol in other english speaking countries is a petrochemical product a transparent yellowish and flammable liquid normally used as a fuel for spark ignited internal combustion engines it is chemically composed of organic compounds derived from the fractional distillation of petroleum and later chemically enhanced with gasoline additives it is a high volume profitable product produced in crude oil refineries 40 middle distillates edit kerosene also known as paraffin is a combustible hydrocarbon liquid which is derived from petroleum it is widely used as a fuel in aviation as well as households its name derives from the greek κηρός kērós meaning wax it was registered as a trademark by nova scotia geologist and inventor abraham gesner in 1854 before evolving into a generic trademark it is sometimes spelled kerosine in scientific and industrial usage 41 jet fuel or aviation turbine fuel atf also abbreviated avtur is a type of aviation fuel designed for use in aircraft powered by gas turbine engines it is colorless to straw colored in appearance the most commonly used fuels for commercial aviation are jet a and jet a 1 which are produced to a standardized international specification the only other jet fuel commonly used in civilian turbine engine powered aviation is jet b which is used for its enhanced cold weather performance fuel oil is any of various fractions obtained from the distillation of petroleum crude oil such oils include distillates the lighter fractions and residues the heavier fractions fuel oils include heavy fuel oil bunker fuel marine fuel oil mfo furnace oil fo gas oil gasoil heating oils such as home heating oil diesel fuel and others diesel fuel also called diesel oil fuel oil historically or simply diesel is any liquid fuel specifically designed for use in a diesel engine a type of internal combustion engine in which fuel ignition takes place as a result of compression of the inlet air and then injection of fuel without a spark therefore diesel fuel needs good compression ignition characteristics heavy distillates and residuum edit these require blending various feedstocks mixing appropriate additives providing short term storage and preparation for bulk loading to trucks barges product ships and railcars this classification is based on the way crude oil is distilled and separated into fractions 2 heavy fuel oil hfo is a fuel oil of a tar like consistency also known as bunker fuel or residual fuel oil hfo is the residual mixture left over from the distillation and cracking of crude oil in oil refineries 42 generally it has a boiling temperature between 350 and 500 c and is significantly more viscous than diesel fuel 43 as it is created through the extraction of more valuable components of its petroleum precursor hfo contains various undesirable compounds and elements which include aromatics sulfur nitrogen vanadium and others 42 these non hydrocarbon contaminants significantly increase toxic gas and particulate emissions upon combustion 44 such as sulfur dioxide carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides 45 46 motor oil engine oil or engine lubricant is any one of various substances used for the lubrication of internal combustion engines motor oils typically consist of base oils enhanced with various additives particularly antiwear additives detergents dispersants and for multi grade oils viscosity index improvers citation needed 47 the main function of motor oil is to reduce friction and wear on moving parts and to clean the engine from sludge one of the functions of dispersants and varnish detergents it also neutralizes acids that originate from fuel and from oxidation of the lubricant detergents improves the sealing of piston rings and cools the engine by carrying heat away from moving parts 48 paraffin wax or petroleum wax is a soft colorless solid derived from petroleum coal or oil shale that consists of a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules containing between 20 and 40 carbon atoms it is solid at room t...
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