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mited to a small subset of browsers removing the prefix allows other browsers to see the functionality an exception is certain obsolete webkit prefixed properties which are so common and persistent on the web that other families of browsers have decided to support them for compatibility 42 css snapshot 2021 css has various levels and profiles each level of css builds upon the last typically adding new features and typically denoted 43 as css 1 css 2 css 3 and css 4 profiles are typically a subset of one or more levels of css built for a particular device or user interface currently there are profiles for mobile devices printers and television sets profiles should not be confused with media types which were added in css 2 css 1 edit the first css specification to become an official w3c recommendation is css level 1 published on 17 december 1996 håkon wium lie and bert bos are credited as the original developers 44 45 among its capabilities are support for font properties such as typeface and emphasis color of text backgrounds and other elements text attributes such as spacing between words letters and lines of text alignment of text images tables and other elements margin border padding and positioning for most elements unique identification and generic classification of groups of attributes the w3c no longer maintains the css 1 recommendation 46 css 2 edit css level 2 specification was developed by the w3c and published as a recommendation in may 1998 a superset of css 1 css 2 includes a number of new capabilities like absolute relative and fixed positioning of elements and z index the concept of media types support for aural style sheets which were later replaced by the css 3 speech modules 47 and bidirectional text and new font properties such as shadows the w3c no longer maintains the css 2 recommendation 48 css 2 1 edit css level 2 revision 1 often referred to as css 2 1 fixes errors in css 2 removes poorly supported or not fully interoperable features and adds already implemented browser extensions to the specification to comply with the w3c process for standardizing technical specifications css 2 1 went back and forth between working draft status and candidate recommendation status for many years css 2 1 first became a candidate recommendation on 25 february 2004 but it was reverted to a working draft on 13 june 2005 for further review it returned to candidate recommendation on 19 july 2007 and then updated twice in 2009 however because changes and clarifications were made it again went back to last call working draft on 7 december 2010 css 2 1 went to proposed recommendation on 12 april 2011 49 after being reviewed by the w3c advisory committee it was finally published as a w3c recommendation on 7 june 2011 50 css 2 1 was planned as the first and final revision of level 2 but low priority work on css 2 2 began in 2015 css 3 edit css3 redirects here for other uses see css3 disambiguation unlike css 2 which is a large single specification defining various features css 3 is divided into several separate documents called modules each module adds new capabilities or extends features defined in css 2 preserving backward compatibility work on css level 3 started around the time of publication of the original css 2 recommendation the earliest css 3 drafts were published in june 1999 51 due to the modularization different modules have different stability and statuses 52 some modules have candidate recommendation cr status and are considered moderately stable at cr stage implementations are advised to drop vendor prefixes 53 summary of main module specifications 54 module specification title status date css3 background css backgrounds and borders module level 3 candidate rec feb 2023 css box 3 css box model module level 3 recommendation apr 2023 css cascade 3 css cascading and inheritance level 3 recommendation feb 2021 css color 3 css color module level 3 recommendation jan 2022 css3 content css generated content module level 3 working draft aug 2019 css fonts 3 css fonts module level 3 recommendation sep 2018 css3 gcpm css generated content for paged media module working draft may 2014 css3 layout css template layout module note mar 2015 css3 mediaqueries media queries recommendation jun 2012 mediaqueries 4 media queries level 4 candidate rec dec 2021 css3 multicol multi column layout module level 1 candidate rec oct 2021 css3 page css paged media module level 3 working draft and part migrated to css3 break oct 2018 css3 break css fragmentation module level 3 candidate rec dec 2018 selectors 3 selectors level 3 recommendation nov 2018 selectors 4 selectors level 4 working draft nov 2022 css3 ui css basic user interface module level 3 css3 ui recommendation jun 2018 css 4 edit css4 redirects here for other uses see css4 disambiguation jen simmons discussing the state of css in 2019 as several css 4 modules were being advanced there is no css4 specification 55 56 because css has been split into many separate modules which level independently modules that build on things from css level 2 started at level 3 some of them have already reached level 4 or are already approaching level 5 other modules that define entirely new functionality such as flexbox 57 have been designated as level 1 and some of them are approaching level 2 the css working group sometimes publishes snapshots a collection of whole modules and parts of other drafts that are considered stable enough to be implemented by browser developers so far five such best current practices documents have been published as notes in 2007 58 2010 59 2015 60 2017 61 and 2018 62 since these specification snapshots are primarily intended for developers there has been a growing demand for a similar versioned reference document targeted at authors which would present the state of interoperable implementations as meanwhile documented by sites like can i use 63 and the mdn web docs 64 a w3c community group has been established in early 2020 in order to discuss and define such a resource 65 the actual kind of versioning is also up to debate which means that the document once produced might not be called css4 browser support edit each web browser uses a layout engine to render web pages and support for css functionality is not consistent between them because browsers do not parse css perfectly multiple coding techniques have been developed to target specific browsers with workarounds commonly known as css hacks or css filters the adoption of new functionality in css can be hindered by a lack of support in major browsers for example internet explorer was slow to add support for many css 3 features which slowed the adoption of those features and damaged the browser s reputation among developers additionally a proprietary syntax for the non vendor prefixed filter property was used in some versions 66 in order to ensure a consistent experience for their users web developers often test their sites across multiple operating systems browsers and browser versions increasing development time and complexity tools such as browserstack have been built to reduce the complexity of maintaining these environments in addition to these testing tools many sites maintain lists of browser support for specific css properties including caniuse and the mdn web docs additionally css 3 defines feature queries which provide an supports directive that will allow developers to target browsers with support for certain functionality directly within their css 67 css that is not supported by older browsers can also sometimes be patched in using javascript polyfills which are pieces of javascript code designed to make browsers behave consistently these workarounds and the need to support fallback functionality can add complexity to development projects and consequently companies frequently define a list of browser versions that they will and will not support as websites adopt newer code standards that are incompatible with older browsers these browsers can be cut off from accessing many of the resources on the web sometimes intentionally 68 however many of the most popular sites on the internet are not just visually degraded on older browsers due to poor css support but do not work at all mostly due to the evolution of javascript and other web technologies limitations edit some noted limitations of the current capabilities of css include cannot explicitly declare new scope independently of position edit scoping rules for properties such as z index look for the closest parent element with a position absolute or position relative declaration this odd coupling has undesired effects for example it is impossible to avoid declaring a new scope when one is forced to adjust an element s position preventing one from using the desired scope of a parent element pseudo class dynamic behavior not controllable edit css implements pseudo classes that allow a degree of user feedback by conditional application of alternative styles one css pseudo class hover is dynamic equivalent of javascript onmouseover and has potential for misuse e g implementing cursor proximity popups 69 but css has no ability for a client to disable it no disable like property or limit its effects no nochange like values for each property cannot name rules edit there is no way to name a css rule which would allow for example client side scripts to refer to the rule even if its selector changes cannot include styles from a rule into another rule edit css styles often must be duplicated in several rules to achieve the desired effect causing additional maintenance and requiring more thorough testing some new css features were proposed to solve this but were abandoned afterward 70 71 instead authors may gain this ability by using more sophisticated stylesheet languages which compile to css such as sass less or stylus cannot target specific text without altering markup edit besides the first letter pseudo element one cannot target specific ranges of text without needing to utilize placeholder elements advantages edit separation of content from presentation edit main article separation of content and presentation css facilitates the publication of content in multiple presentation formats by adjusting styles based on various nominal parameters these parameters include explicit user preferences such as themes or font size compatibility with different web browsers the type of device used to view the content e g desktop tablet or mobile device screen resolutions the geographic location of the user and many other variables css also enables responsive design ensuring that content dynamically adapts to different screen sizes and orientations enhancing accessibility and user experience across a wide range of environments site wide consistency edit main article style sheet web development when css is used effectively in terms of inheritance and cascading a global style sheet can be used to affect and style elements site wide if the situation arises that the styling of the elements should be changed or adjusted these changes can be made by editing rules in the global style sheet before css this sort of maintenance was more difficult expensive and time consuming bandwidth edit a stylesheet internal or external specifies the style once for a range of html elements selected by class type or relationship to others this is much more efficient than repeating style information inline for each occurrence of the element an external stylesheet is usually stored in the browser cache and can therefore be used on multiple pages without being reloaded further reducing data transfer over a network page reformatting edit main article progressive enhancement with a simple change of one line a different style sheet can be used for the same page this has advantages for accessibility as well as providing the ability to tailor a page or site to different target devices furthermore devices not able to understand the styling such as older browsers can still display the content accessibility edit main article tableless web design accessibility without css web designers must typically lay out their pages with techniques such as html tables that hinder accessibility for vision impaired users see tableless web design accessibility standardization edit frameworks edit main article css framework css frameworks are prepared libraries that are meant to allow for easier more standards compliant styling of web pages using the cascading style sheets language css frameworks include blueprint bootstrap foundation and materialize like programming and scripting language libraries css frameworks are usually incorporated as external css sheets referenced in the html head they provide a number of ready made options for designing and laying out the web page although many of these frameworks have been published some authors use them mostly for rapid prototyping or for learning from and prefer to handcraft css that is appropriate to each published site without the design maintenance and download overhead of having many unused features in the site s styling 72 design methodologies edit as the size of css resources used in a project increases a development team often needs to decide on a common design methodology to keep them organized the goals are ease of development ease of collaboration during development and performance of the deployed stylesheets in the browser popular methodologies include oocss object oriented css acss atomic css css organic cascade style sheet smacss scalable and modular architecture for css and bem block element modifier 73 see also edit flash of unstyled content css in js references edit minutes telecon 2024 12 11 css wg blog w3c 2024 12 12 archived from the original on 2025 01 16 retrieved 2025 01 16 css developer guide mdn web docs archived from the original on 2015 09 25 retrieved 2026 04 20 flanagan david 18 april 2011 javascript the definitive guide beijing farnham o reilly p 1 isbn 978 1 4493 9385 4 oclc 686709345 javascript is part of the triad of technologies that all web developers must learn html to specify the content of web pages css to specify the presentation of web pages and javascript to specify the behavior of web pages what is css world wide web consortium archived from the original on 2010 11 29 retrieved 2010 12 01 clark scott 23 july 2010 web based mobile apps of the future using html 5 css and javascript html goodies htmlgoodies archived from the original on 2014 10 20 retrieved 2014 10 16 w3c css validation service archived from the original on 2011 02 14 retrieved 2012 06 30 w3c css2 1 specification for pseudo elements and pseudo classes world wide web consortium 7 june 2011 archived from the original on 30 april 2012 retrieved 30 april 2012 selectors cascading style sheets level 2 revision 1 css 2 1 specification w3c archived from the original on 2006 04 23 selectors level 3 w3c archived from the original on 2014 06 03 retrieved 2014 05 30 css syntax module le...
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