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ed device cameras as vision sensors sound sensors allow humanoid robots to hear speech and environmental sounds akin to the ears of the human being microphones are usually used for the robots to convey speech actuators edit see also humanoid hand actuators are the motors responsible for motion in the robot 28 the most popular example of a humanoid robot using hydraulic actuators was the original atlas robot made by boston dynamics retired in 2024 humanoid robots are constructed in such a way that they mimic the human body they use actuators that perform like muscles and joints though with a different structure 28 the actuators of humanoid robots can be either electric pneumatic or hydraulic 29 30 it is ideal for these actuators to have high power low mass and small dimensions 30 electric edit electric actuators are the most popular types of actuators in humanoid robots 29 these actuators are smaller in size and a single electric actuator may not produce enough power for a human sized joint 29 therefore it is common to use multiple electric actuators for a single joint in a humanoid robot 29 an example of a humanoid robot using electric actuators is hrp 2 30 by 2026 the industry transitioned toward integrated joint modules that combine high torque brushless motors with strain wave gearing for increased power density hydraulic edit hydraulic actuators produce higher power than electric actuators and pneumatic actuators and they have the ability to control the torque they produce better than other types of actuators 30 however they can become very bulky in size 29 30 one solution to counter the size issue is electro hydrostatic actuators eha 30 the most popular example of a humanoid robot using hydraulic actuators is the atlas robot made by boston dynamics 30 31 pneumatic edit pneumatic actuators operate on the basis of gas compressibility 29 30 as they are inflated they expand along the axis and as they deflate they contract if one end is fixed the other will move in a linear trajectory a popular example of a pneumatic actuator is the mac kibben muscle 30 planning and control edit planning in robots is the process of planning out motions and trajectories for the robot to carry out 32 control is the actual execution of these planned motions and trajectories 32 in humanoid robots the planning must carry out biped motions meaning that robots should plan motions similar to a human 33 since one of the main uses of humanoid robots is to interact with humans it is important for the planning and control mechanisms of humanoid robots to work in a variety of terrain and environments 33 the question of walking biped robots stabilization on the surface is of great importance 34 maintenance of the robot s gravity center over the center of bearing area for providing a stable position can be chosen as a goal of control 34 to maintain dynamic balance during the walk a robot needs information about contact force and its current and desired motion 33 the solution to this problem relies on a major concept the zero moment point zmp 33 another characteristic of humanoid robots is that they move gather information using sensors on the real world and interact with it 35 they do not stay still like factory manipulators and other robots that work in highly structured environments 35 to allow humanoids to move in complex environments planning and control must focus on self collision detection path planning and obstacle avoidance 35 36 humanoid robots do not yet have some features of the human body 37 they include structures with variable flexibility which provide safety to the robot itself and to the people and redundancy of movements i e more degrees of freedom and therefore wide task availability 37 although these characteristics are desirable to humanoid robots they will bring more complexity and new problems to planning and control 38 the field of whole body control deals with these issues and addresses the proper coordination of numerous degrees of freedom e g to realize several control tasks simultaneously while following a given order of priority 39 40 some humanoid robots feature only the upper body which is typically mounted to a wheeled base 41 drastically reducing the risk of falling common to bipedal units 42 timeline of developments edit year subject notes 1898 nikola tesla publicly demonstrates his automaton technology by wirelessly controlling a model boat at the electrical exposition held at madison square garden in new york city during the height of the spanish american war 43 1921 czech writer karel čapek introduced the word robot in his play r u r which stands for rossum s universal robots the word robot comes from the word robota meaning in czech and polish labour drudgery 44 1927 maschinenmensch the maschinenmensch machine human a gynoid humanoid robot also called parody futura robotrix or the maria impersonator played by german actress brigitte helm one of the earliest humanoid robots ever to appear on film is depicted in fritz lang s film metropolis 1928 eric an electrical robot opens an exhibition of the society of model engineers at london s royal horticultural hall in london and tours the world 45 1939 elektro a humanoid robot built by the westinghouse electric corporation 46 1941 42 three laws of robotics isaac asimov formulates the three laws of robotics used in his robot science fiction stories and in the process of doing so coins the word robotics 47 1948 cybernetics norbert wiener formulates the principles of cybernetics the basis of practical robotics 48 1961 unimate the first digitally operated and programmable non humanoid robot is installed on a general motors assembly line to lift hot pieces of metal from a die casting machine and stack them it was created by george devol and constructed by unimation the first robot manufacturing company 49 1967 to 1972 wabot 1 waseda university initiated the wabot project in 1967 and in 1972 completed the wabot 1 the world s first full scale humanoid intelligent robot 50 51 it was the first android able to walk communicate with a person in japanese with an artificial mouth measure distances and directions to the objects using external receptors artificial ears and eyes and grip and transport objects with hands 52 53 54 1969 d e whitney publishes his article resolved motion rate control of manipulators and human prosthesis 55 1970 zero moment point miomir vukobratović proposed a theoretical model to explain bipedal locomotion 56 1972 powered exoskeleton vukobratović and his associates at mihajlo pupin institute build the first active anthropomorphic exoskeleton 57 1980 marc raibert established the mit leg lab which is dedicated to studying legged locomotion and building dynamic legged robots 58 1983 greenman using mb associates arms greenman was developed by space and naval warfare systems center san diego it had an exoskeletal master controller with kinematic equivalency and spatial correspondence of the torso arms and head its vision system consisted of two 525 line video cameras each having a 35 degree field of view and video camera eyepiece monitors mounted in an aviator s helmet 59 1984 wabot 2 at waseda university the wabot 2 is created a musician humanoid robot able to communicate with a person read a normal musical score with his eyes and play tunes of average difficulty on an electronic organ 52 1985 whl 11 developed by hitachi ltd whl 11 is a biped robot capable of static walking on a flat surface at 13 seconds per step and it can also turn 52 1986 honda e series honda developed seven biped robots which were designated e0 experimental model 0 through e6 e0 was in 1986 e1 e3 were done between 1987 and 1991 and e4 e6 were done between 1991 and 1993 60 1989 manny a full scale anthropomorphic robot with 42 degrees of freedom developed at battelle s pacific northwest laboratories in richland washington for the us army s dugway proving ground in utah it could not walk on its own but it could crawl and had an artificial respiratory system to simulate breathing and sweating 52 1990 tad mcgeer showed that a biped mechanical structure with knees could walk passively down a sloping surface 61 1993 honda p series honda developed p1 prototype model 1 through p3 an evolution from e series with upper limbs developed until 1997 60 1995 hadaly developed in waseda university to study human robot communication and has three subsystems a head eye subsystem a voice control system for listening and speaking in japanese and a motion control subsystem to use the arms to point toward campus destinations 62 1995 wabian a human size biped walking robot from waseda university 62 1996 saika a light weight human size and low cost humanoid robot was developed at tokyo university saika has a two dof neck dual five dof upper arms a torso and a head several types of hands and forearms are under development also developed until 1998 52 vanderbilt humanoid the intelligent robotics lab built isac intelligent soft arm control robot uses bridgestone robotics arms the bridgestone robotic arm uses pneumatic actuated chambers to simulate the human muscle contraction and expansion in 1995 the two arms were augmented with a mechanical head called catch cost effective active camera head catch was built by a graduate student 63 then used for autonomous navigation and put on the two arms to create the third humanoid in the world after honda s asimo and mit s cog 1997 hadaly 2 a humanoid robot designed in waseda university which realizes interactive communication with humans it communicates not only informationally but also physically 62 2000 asimo honda creates its 11th bipedal humanoid robot able to run 60 xianxingzhe the national university of defense technology creates the first bipedal humanoid robot in china 2001 qrio sony unveils small humanoid entertainment robots dubbed sony dream robot sdr renamed qrio in 2003 64 hoap fujitsu realized its first commercial humanoid robot named hoap 1 its successors hoap 2 and hoap 3 were announced in 2003 and 2005 respectively hoap is designed for a broad range of applications for r d of robot technologies 65 2002 hrp 2 a biped walking robot built by the manufacturing science and technology center mstc in tokyo 66 2003 johnnie an autonomous biped walking robot built at the technical university of munich the main objective was to realize an anthropomorphic walking machine with a human like dynamically stable gait 67 actroid a robot with realistic silicone skin developed by osaka university in conjunction with kokoro company ltd 68 2004 persia iran s first humanoid robot was developed using realistic simulation by researchers of isfahan university of technology in conjunction with istt 69 khr 1 a programmable bipedal humanoid robot introduced in june 2004 by a japanese company kondo kagaku 2005 hubo a walking humanoid robot developed by korea advanced institute of science and technology in january 2005 pkd android a conversational humanoid robot made in the likeness of science fiction novelist philip k dick was developed as a collaboration between hanson robotics the fedex institute of technology and the university of memphis 70 wakamaru a japanese domestic robot made by mitsubishi heavy industries primarily intended to provide companionship to elderly and disabled people 71 actroid the geminoid series is a series of ultra realistic humanoid robots developed by hiroshi ishiguro of atr and kokoro in tokyo the original one geminoid hi 1 was made at its image followed geminoid f in 2010 and geminoid dk in 2011 72 2006 nao a small open source programmable humanoid robot developed by aldebaran robotics in france widely used by worldwide universities as a research platform and educational tool 72 reem a the first fully autonomous european biped humanoid robot designed to play chess with the hydra chess engine the first robot developed by pal robotics it was also used as a walking manipulation speech and vision development platform 73 icub a biped humanoid open source robot for cognition research 74 mahru a network based biped humanoid robot developed in south korea 75 2007 topio a ping pong playing robot developed by tosy robotics jsc 76 twendy one a robot developed by the waseda university sugano laboratory for home assistance services it is not biped as it uses an omni directional mobile mechanism 77 2008 justin a humanoid robot developed by the german aerospace center dlr 78 nexi the first mobile dexterous and social robot makes its public debut as one of time magazine s top inventions of the year 79 the robot was built through a collaboration between the mit media lab personal robots group 80 umass amherst and meka robotics 81 82 salvius the first open source humanoid robot built in the united states is created 83 reem b the second biped humanoid robot developed by pal robotics it has the ability to autonomously learn its environment using various sensors and carry 20 of its own weight 84 surena it had a height of 165 centimetres and weight of 60 kilograms and is able to speak according to predefined text it also has remote control and tracking ability 85 2009 hrp 4c a japanese domestic robot made by national institute of advanced industrial science and technology shows human characteristics in addition to bipedal walking 86 kobian a robot developed by waseda university can walk talk and mimic emotions 87 darwin op an open source robot developed by robotis in collaboration with virginia tech purdue university and university of pennsylvania this project was supported and sponsored by nsf 88 2010 robonaut 2 a very advanced humanoid robot by nasa and general motors it was part of the payload of shuttle discovery on the successful launch february 24 2011 it is intended to do spacewalks for nasa 89 hrp 4c national institute of advanced industrial science and technology demonstrate their humanoid robot singing and dancing along with human dancers 90 reem a humanoid service robot with a wheeled mobile base developed by pal robotics it can perform autonomous navigation in various surroundings and has voice and face recognition capabilities 91 2011 asimo in november honda unveiled its second generation honda asimo robot the all new asimo is the first version of the robot with semi autonomous capabilities 92 2012 nimbro the autonomous intelligent systems group of university of bonn germany introduces the humanoid teensize open platform nimbro op 93 2013 toro the german aerospace center dlr presents the humanoid robot toro torque controlled humanoid robot 94 on december 20 21 2013 darpa robotics challenge ranked the top 16 humanoid robots competing for the us 2 million cash prize the leading team schaft with 27 out of a possible score of 30 was bought by google 95 reem c pal robotics launches reem c the first humanoid biped robot developed as a robotics research platform 100 ros based 96 poppy the first open source 3d printed humanoid robot bio inspired with legs designed for bip...
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