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exico tenochtitlan rulers maya civilization mesoamerica mesoamerican chronology mixtec people nahuas nahuatl notes the term was not used as an endonym see definitions smith 1997 p 4 writes for many the term aztec refers strictly to the inhabitants of tenochtitlan the mexica people or perhaps the inhabitants of the valley of mexico the highland basin where the mexica and certain other aztec groups lived i believe it makes more sense to expand the definition of aztec to include the peoples of nearby highland valleys in addition to the inhabitants of the valley of mexico in the final few centuries before the arrival of the spaniards in 1519 the peoples of this wider area all spoke the nahuatl language the language of the aztecs and they all traced their origins to a mythical place called aztlan aztlan is the etymon of aztec a modern label that was not used by the aztecs themselves lockhart 1992 p 1 writes these people i call the nahuas a name they sometimes used themselves and the one that has become current today in mexico in preference to aztecs the latter term has several decisive disadvantages it implies a quasi national unity that did not exist it directs attention to an ephemeral imperial agglomeration it is attached specifically to the pre conquest period and by the standards of the time its use for anyone other than the mexica the inhabitants of the imperial capital tenochtitlan would have been improper even if it had been the mexica s primary designation which it was not the editors of the oxford handbook of the aztecs nichols rodríguez alegría 2017 p 3 write the use of terminology changed historically during the late postclassic and it has changed among modern scholars readers will find some variation in the terms authors employ in this handbook but in general different authors use aztecs to refer to people incorporated into the empire of the triple alliance in the late postclassic period an empire of such broad geographic extent subsumed much cultural linguistic and social variation and the term aztec empire should not obscure that scholars often use more specific identifiers such as mexica or tenochca when appropriate and they generally employ the term nahuas to refer to indigenous people in central mexico after the spanish conquest as lockhart 1992 proposed all of these terms introduce their own problems whether because they are vague subsume too much variation are imposed labels or are problematic for some other reason we have not found a solution that all can agree on and thus accept the varied viewpoints of authors we use the term aztec because today it is widely recognized by both scholars and the international public the name of the two aztec rulers which in this article is written as motecuzoma has several variants due to alterations to the original nahuatl word by speakers of english and spanish and due to different orthographical choices for writing nahuatl words in english the variant montezuma was originally the most common but has now largely been replaced with motecuhzoma and moteuczoma in spanish the term moctezuma which inverts the order of t and k has been predominant and is a common surname in mexico but is now also largely replaced with a form that respects the original nahuatl structure such as motecuzoma in nahuatl the word is motekʷso ma meaning he frowns like a lord hajovsky 2015 pp ix 147 n 3 gillespie 1989 argues that the name motecuzoma was a later addition added to make for a parallel to the later ruler and that his original name was only ilhuicamina some sources including the relación de tula and the history of motolinia suggest that atotoztli functioned as ruler of tenochtitlan succeeding her father indeed no conquests are recorded for motecuzoma in the last years of his reign suggesting that he may have been incapable of ruling or even dead diel 2005 the term tlatloque can generally be exchanged with the term tlatoani both referring to a leader of an atlepetl in the context of this article it is best to inference them as co referential singular form pilli this volume was later translated into spanish by ángel maría garibay k teacher of león portilla and it exists in english translation by john bierhorst references why are aztecs called mexicas mexicanroutes com 4 november 2023 retrieved 4 november 2023 e g offner 1983 gibson 1964 smith 1997 pp 4 7 lucia kristin de 2018 style memory and the production of history aztec pottery and the materialization of a toltec legacy pdf current anthropology 59 6 741 764 doi 10 1086 700916 issn 0011 3204 s2cid 150354407 smith 1997 pp 174 175 smith michael e 2014 the aztecs paid taxes not tribute mexicon 36 1 19 22 issn 0720 5988 jstor 43857654 smith 1997 pp 176 182 hernán cortés conquers the aztec empire history 22 september 2025 retrieved 22 september 2025 cline 2000 pp 193 197 1 2 náhuatl ar z vocabulario com mx archived from the original on 17 october 2012 retrieved 30 august 2012 aztec online etymology dictionary archived from the original on 7 july 2014 chimalpahin 1997 p 73 1 2 barlow 1949 1 2 león portilla 2000 barlow 1945 1 2 carrasco 1999 p 4 offner 1983 smith 1997 p 4 nichols rodríguez alegría 2017 gibson 1964 pp 9 21 lockhart 1992 p 1 smith 1997 p 2 campbell 1997 p 134 1 2 berdan anawalt 1997 boone 2000 pp 242 249 1 2 3 4 batalla 2016 león portilla 2002 sahagún 1577 berdan 2014 pp 25 28 beekman christensen 2003 smith 1997 pp 41 43 smith 1984 smith 1984 p 173 smith 1997 pp 44 45 townsend 2009 pp 60 62 townsend 2009 p 63 townsend 2009 pp 64 74 townsend 2009 pp 74 75 townsend 2009 pp 78 81 smith 1997 p 51 hassig 1988 pp 158 159 hassig 1988 pp 161 162 1 2 townsend 2009 pp 91 98 smith 1997 pp 51 53 schmal john p the mixtecs and zapotecs two enduring cultures of oaxaca houston institute for culture retrieved 2 october 2024 smith 1997 pp 52 53 carrasco 1999 pp 404 407 townsend 2009 p 99 townsend 2009 pp 99 100 townsend 2009 pp 100 101 huey tzompantli fearsome tower of human skulls unearthed in mexico city the yucatan times 21 july 2017 archived from the original on 12 january 2023 retrieved 14 july 2021 townsend 2009 pp 101 110 townsend 2009 p 110 townsend 2009 pp 220 236 1 2 3 connell william f 24 september 2012 after moctezuma indigenous politics and self government in mexico city 1524 1730 university of oklahoma press p 19 isbn 978 0 8061 8543 9 vazquez gomez juana 28 october 1997 dictionary of mexican rulers 1325 1997 bloomsbury academic isbn 978 0 313 30049 3 the roots of tlaxcalan resentment indigenous mexico retrieved 21 march 2025 díaz del castillo bernal cohen john m díaz del castillo bernal 2003 the conquest of new spain penguin classics nachdr ed london penguin books isbn 978 0 14 044123 9 prescott william hickling gonzáles de la vega josé maría prescott william hickling 1985 historia de la conquista de méxico con un bosquejo preliminar de la civilización de los antiguos mexicanos y la vida del conquistador hernando cortés history of the conquest of mexico sepan cuantos in spanish 3rd ed méxico porrúa isbn 978 968 452 056 1 1 2 townsend camilla 2019 fifth sun a new history of the aztecs oxford university press pp 11 164 isbn 978 0 19 067306 2 portilla miguel león portilla miguel león leon portilla miguel portilla miguel léon 1983 los antiguos mexicanos a través de sus crónicas y cantares 1a ed en lecturas mexicanas ed méxico d f fondo de cultura económica isbn 978 968 16 1528 4 ol 2941366m restall matthew 28 october 2004 seven myths of the spanish conquest oxford university press isbn 978 0 19 983975 9 aztec codices the written history of a lost empire www mexicohistorico com retrieved 21 march 2025 chimalpahin quauhtlehuanitzin domingo francisco de san antón muñón 1997 codex chimalpahin 1 the civilization of the american indian series norman okla university of oklahoma press isbn 978 0 8061 2921 1 evans susan toby 2001 aztec period political organization in the teotihuacan valley otumba as a city state ancient mesoamerica 12 1 89 100 doi 10 1017 s0956536101121139 issn 0956 5361 jstor 26308189 connell william f 2011 after moctezuma indigenous politics and self government in mexico city 1524 1730 norman university of oklahoma press isbn 978 0 8061 4175 6 oclc 666616385 diel lori boornazian 15 september 2009 the tira de tepechpan negotiating place under aztec and spanish rule university of texas press isbn 978 0 292 78228 0 1 2 connell william f 24 september 2012 after moctezuma indigenous politics and self government in mexico city 1524 1730 university of oklahoma press p 17 isbn 978 0 8061 8543 9 diel lori boornazian 15 september 2009 the tira de tepechpan negotiating place under aztec and spanish rule university of texas press isbn 978 0 292 78228 0 schroeder susan 16 november 2016 tlacaelel remembered mastermind of the aztec empire university of oklahoma press isbn 978 0 8061 5765 8 lockhart james 1992 the nahuas after the conquest a social and cultural history of the indians of central mexico sixteenth through eighteenth centuries stanford university press isbn 978 0 8047 2317 6 smith 2008 p 154 noguera auza 1974 p 56 sanders 1971 smith 2008 pp 153 154 smith 1997 pp 152 153 burkhart 1997 hassig 2016 lockhart 1992 pp 14 47 townsend 2009 pp 61 62 smith 2008 pp 90 91 1 2 berdan smith 1996b pp 209 216 smith 1996 pp 141 147 berdan smith 1996a p 7 smith 2000 1 2 noguera auza 1974 townsend 2009 pp 171 179 brumfiel 1998 townsend 2009 pp 181 196 townsend 2009 pp 184 193 hirth 2016 hirth 2016 pp 18 37 38 hirth 2016 ch 2 smith 1997 p 126 smith 2005 1 2 smith 2008 smith 2008 p 152 smith 1997 pp 196 200 lópez luján 2005 matos moctezuma 1987 matos moctezuma 1988 maffie n d sec 2a teotl continually generates and regenerates as well as permeates encompasses and shapes the cosmos as part of its endless process of self generation and regeneration that which humans commonly understand as nature e g heavens earth rain humans trees rocks animals etc is generated by teotl from teotl as one aspect facet or moment of its endless process of self generation and regeneration maffie n d sec 2b 2c citing hunt 1977 and i nicholson 1959 leon portilla 1966 p 387 cited by barnett 2007 m leon portilla argues that ometeotl was neither strictly pantheistic nor strictly monistic maffie n d sec 2f literally two god also called in tonan in tota huehueteotl our mother our father the old god maffie n d sec 2f citing leon portilla 1963 maffie n d sec 2f citing caso 1958 leon portilla 1963 ch ii h b nicholson 1971 pp 410 412 and i nicholson 1959 pp 60 63 wade lizzie 2018 feeding the gods science 360 6395 science org 1288 1292 bibcode 2018sci 360 1288w doi 10 1126 science 360 6395 1288 issn 0036 8075 pmid 29930121 s2cid 49414905 retrieved 6 october 2023 smith 1997 pp 204 211 212 221 222 king authors heidi october 2004 tenochtitlan templo mayor essay the metropolitan museum of art heilbrunn timeline of art history the met s heilbrunn timeline of art history retrieved 27 april 2023 miller taube 1993 p 172 ometeotl mythopedia retrieved 27 april 2023 taube 1993 pp 31 33 taube 2012 p 745 taube 1993 pp 41 44 taube 1993 pp 33 37 taube 1993 pp 44 50 hassig 2001 pp 7 19 elson smith 2001 isaac 2005 isaac 2002 1 2 ortíz de montellano 1983 pennock caroline dodds 2012 mass murder religious homicide rethinking human sacrifice and interpersonal violence in aztec society historical social research 37 3 276 283 harner 1977 ortíz de montellano 1990 carrasco 2000 p page needed keen 2001 soustelle 1970 pp 66 69 prem 1992 lacadena 2008 zender 2008 whittaker 2009 berdan anawalt 1997 p 116 tomlinson 1995 karttunen lockhart 1980 bright 1990 montes de oca 2013 p 160 león portilla 1992 pp 14 15 sturman janet 2016 the course of mexican music new york routledge p 30 isbn 978 1 138 84308 0 portilla miguel león 1992 fifteen poets of the aztec world university of oklahoma press isbn 978 0 8061 2441 4 hodge et al 1993 1 2 3 minc 2017 pasztory 1983 pp 292 299 pasztory 1983 p 292 berdan 1982 pp 150 151 boone 2000 nowotny 2005 nowotny 2005 p 8 1 2 tuerenhout dirk r van weeks john m 2005 the aztecs new perspectives abc clio isbn 978 1 57607 921 8 archived from the original on 12 january 2023 retrieved 2 april 2021 nicholson berger 1968 nicholson 1971 1 2 3 berdan 1982 pp 152 153 matos moctezuma 2017 nicholson 1981 pasztory 1983 p 278 soustelle 1970 p 67 berdan 2016 mundy 2015 passim rodríguez alegría 2017 mundy 2014 matthew oudijk 2007 lockhart 1992 mccaa 1995 kubler 1942 1 2 mccaa 1997 sanders 1992 whitmore 1992 morfín storey 2016 p 189 chipman 2005 pp 75 95 himmerich y valencia 1991 pp 195 196 lockhart 1992 pp 30 33 ouweneel 1995 haskett 1991 gibson 1964 passim carrasco 2012 pp 121 135 keen 1971 pp 310 370 minahan james b 2009 the complete guide to national symbols and emblems abc clio p 718 isbn 978 0 313 34497 8 archived from the original on 21 april 2023 retrieved 22 september 2020 keen 1971 pp 260 270 brading 1991 pp 450 455 humboldt 2014 quiñones keber 1996 peterson 2014 pp 176 227 galindo leal et al 2017 berdan anawalt 1997 p 3 1 2 cline 1973 bueno 2016 keen 1971 p 417 tenorio trillo 1996 helland 1990 wolfe 2000 p 147 franco 2004 keen 1971 p 336 keen 1971 p 363 cáceres lorenzo 2015 frazier 2006 1 2 haugen 2009 van essendelft 2018 pilcher 2017 pp 184 185 van dam andrew 27 october 2023 the native american population exploded the census shows here s why the washington post retrieved 29 march 2024 census bureau releases 2020 census data for nearly 1 500 detailed race and ethnicity groups tribes and villages census gov retrieved 29 march 2024 cooper alarcón 1997 keen 1971 carrasco 2012 pp 112 120 witton martill loveridge 2010 smith dinitia 18 february 1999 gary jennings is dead at 70 author of the best seller aztec the new york times archived from the original on 13 january 2016 retrieved 5 january 2016 aztec series macmillan publishers archived from the original on 22 september 2018 retrieved 12 april 2018 o leary devin d 3 may 2007 the other conquest conquers america alibi vol 16 no 18 archived from the original on 12 april 2018 retrieved 12 april 2018 films on the indigenous peoples of mexico part one historical films native american films archived from the original on 15 october 2018 retrieved 12 april 2018 mora 2005 p 212 greene 2012 bibliography batalla juan josé 2016 the historical sources codices and chronicles in deborah l nichols enrique rodríguez alegría eds the oxford handbook of the aztecs vol 1 doi 10 1093 oxfordhb 9780199341962 013 30 barlow robert h 1945 some remarks on the term aztec empire the americas 1 3 345 349 doi 10 2307 978159 jstor 978159 s2cid 147083453 barlow robert h 1949 extent of the empire of culhua mexica university of california press barnett ronald a 1 november 2007 mesoamerican religious concepts part two mexconnect retrieved 20 july 2022 beekman c s christensen a f 2003 controlling for doubt and uncertainty through multiple lines of evidence a new look at the mesoamerican nahua migrations journal of archaeological method and 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