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odex mendoza list subject towns along with the goods they supplied which included not only luxuries such as feathers adorned suits and greenstone beads but more practical goods such as cloth firewood and food taxes were usually paid twice or four times a year at differing times 25 archaeological excavations in the aztec ruled provinces show that incorporation into the empire had both costs and benefits for provincial peoples on the positive side the empire promoted commerce and trade and exotic goods from obsidian to bronze managed to reach the houses of both commoners and nobles trade partners also included the enemy purépecha also known as tarascans a source of bronze tools and jewelry on the negative side imperial taxes imposed a burden on commoner households who had to increase their work to pay their share of taxes nobles on the other hand often made out well under the imperial rule because of the indirect nature of imperial organization the empire had to rely on local kings and nobles and offered them privileges for their help in maintaining order and keeping the tax revenue flowing 96 urbanism aztec society combined a relatively simple agrarian rural tradition with the development of a truly urbanized society with a complex system of institutions specializations and hierarchies the urban tradition in mesoamerica was developed during the classic period with major urban centers such as teotihuacan with a population well above 100 000 and at the time of the rise of the aztecs the urban tradition was ingrained in mesoamerican society with urban centers serving major religious political and economic functions for the entire population 97 mexico tenochtitlan main article mexico tenochtitlan map of the island city of tenochtitlan mexico tenochtitlan urban standard centro cultural de españa archaeological site the capital city of the aztec empire was tenochtitlan now the site of modern day mexico city built on a series of islets in lake texcoco the city plan was based on a symmetrical layout that was divided into four city sections called campan directions tenochtitlan was built according to a fixed plan and centered on the ritual precinct where the great pyramid of tenochtitlan rose 50 meters 160 ft above the city houses were made of wood and loam and roofs were made of reed although pyramids temples and palaces were generally made of stone the city was interlaced with canals which were useful for transportation anthropologist eduardo noguera estimated the population at 200 000 based on the house count and merging the population of tlatelolco once an independent city but later became a suburb of tenochtitlan 87 if one includes the surrounding islets and shores surrounding lake texcoco estimates range from 300 000 to 700 000 inhabitants michael e smith gives a somewhat smaller figure of 212 500 inhabitants of tenochtitlan based on an area of 1 350 hectares 3 300 acres and a population density of 157 inhabitants per hectare 60 acre the second largest city in the valley of mexico in the aztec period was texcoco with some 25 000 inhabitants dispersed over 450 hectares 1 100 acres 98 the center of tenochtitlan was the sacred precinct a walled off square area that housed the great temple temples for other deities the ballcourt the calmecac a school for nobles a skull rack tzompantli displaying the skulls of sacrificial victims houses of the warrior orders and a merchants palace around the sacred precinct were the royal palaces built by the tlatoanis 99 the great temple great temple in historic center of mexico city the centerpiece of tenochtitlan was the templo mayor the great temple a large stepped pyramid with a double staircase leading up to two twin shrines one dedicated to tlaloc the other to huitzilopochtli this was where most of the human sacrifices were carried out during the ritual festivals and the bodies of sacrificial victims were thrown down the stairs the temple was enlarged in several stages and most of the aztec rulers made a point of adding a further stage each with a new dedication and inauguration the temple has been excavated in the center of mexico city and the rich dedicatory offerings are displayed in the museum of the templo mayor 100 archeologist eduardo matos moctezuma in his essay symbolism of the templo mayor posits that the orientation of the temple is indicative of the totality of the vision the mexica had of the universe cosmovision he states that the principal center or navel where the horizontal and vertical planes intersect that is the point from which the heavenly or upper plane and the plane of the underworld begin and the four directions of the universe originate is the templo mayor of tenochtitlan matos moctezuma supports his supposition by claiming that the temple acts as an embodiment of a living myth where all sacred power is concentrated and where all the levels intersect 101 102 other major city states other major aztec cities were some of the previous city state centers around the lake including tenayuca azcapotzalco texcoco colhuacan tlacopan chapultepec coyoacan xochimilco and chalco in the puebla valley cholula was the largest city with the largest pyramid temple in mesoamerica while the confederacy of tlaxcala consisted of four smaller cities in morelos cuahnahuac was a major city of the nahuatl speaking tlahuica tribe and tollocan in the toluca valley was the capital of the matlatzinca tribe which included nahuatl speakers as well as speakers of otomi and the language today called matlatzinca most aztec cities had a similar layout with a central plaza with a major pyramid with two staircases and a double temple oriented toward the west 97 religion main article aztec religion nahuas metaphysics centers around teotl a single dynamic vivifying eternally self generating and self regenerating sacred power energy or force 103 this is conceptualized in a kind of monistic pantheism 104 as manifest in the supreme god ometeotl 105 as well as a large pantheon of lesser gods and idealizations of natural phenomena such as stars and fire 106 priests and educated upper classes held more monistic views while the popular religion of the uneducated tended to embrace the polytheistic and mythological aspects 107 in common with many other indigenous mesoamerican civilizations the aztecs put great ritual emphasis on calendrics and scheduled festivals government ceremonies and even war around key transition dates in the aztec calendar public ritual practices could involve food storytelling and dance as well as ceremonial warfare the mesoamerican ballgame and human sacrifice as a manner of payment for or even effecting the continuation of the days and the cycle of life 108 109 deities main article list of aztec gods and supernatural beings the deity tezcatlipoca depicted in the codex borgia one of the few extant pre hispanic codices the four main deities worshiped by the aztecs were tlaloc huitzilopochtli quetzalcoatl and tezcatlipoca tlaloc is a rain and storm deity huitzilopochtli a solar and martial deity and the tutelary deity of the mexica tribe quetzalcoatl a wind sky and star deity and cultural hero and tezcatlipoca a deity of the night magic prophecy and fate the great temple in tenochtitlan had two shrines on its top one dedicated to tlaloc the other to huitzilopochtli the two shrines represented two sacred mountains the left one was tonacatepetl the hill of sustenance whose patron god was tlaloc and the right one was coatepec whose patron god was huitzilopochtli 110 quetzalcoatl and tezcatlipoca each had separate temples within the religious precinct close to the great temple and the high priests of the great temple were named quetzalcoatl tlamacazqueh other major deities were tlaltecutli or coatlicue a female earth deity the deity couple tonacatecuhtli and tonacacihuatl associated with life and sustenance mictlantecutli and mictlancihuatl a male and female couple of deities that represented the underworld and death chalchiutlicue a female deity of lakes and springs xipe totec a deity of fertility and the natural cycle huehueteotl or xiuhtecuhtli a fire god tlazolteotl a female deity tied to childbirth and sexuality and xochipilli and xochiquetzal gods of song dance and games in some regions particularly tlaxcala mixcoatl or camaxtli was the main tribal deity a few sources mention a binary deity ometeotl who may have been a god of the duality between life and death male and female and who may have incorporated tonacatecuhtli and tonacacihuatl 111 some historians argue against the notion that ometeotl was a dual god claiming that scholars are applying their preconceived ideas onto translated texts 112 apart from the major deities there were dozens of minor deities each associated with an element or concept and as the aztec empire grew so did their pantheon because they adopted and incorporated the local deities of conquered people into their own additionally the major gods had many alternative manifestations or aspects creating small families of gods with related aspects 113 mythology and worldview main article aztec mythology aztec cosmological drawing with the god xiuhtecuhtli the lord of fire in the center and the four corners of the cosmos marked by four trees with associated birds deities and calendar names and each direction marked by a dismembered limb of the god tezcatlipoca 114 from the codex fejérváry mayer aztec mythology is known from many sources written down in the colonial period one set of myths called legend of the suns describes the creation of four successive suns or periods each ruled by a different deity and inhabited by a different group of beings each period ends in a cataclysmic destruction that sets the stage for the next period to begin in this process the deities tezcatlipoca and quetzalcoatl appear as adversaries each destroying the creations of the other the current sun the fifth was created when a minor deity sacrificed himself on a bonfire and turned into the sun but the sun only begins to move once the other deities sacrifice themselves and offer it their life force 115 in another myth of how the earth was created tezcatlipoca and quetzalcoatl appear as allies defeating a giant crocodile cipactli and requiring her to become the earth allowing humans to carve into her flesh and plant their seeds on the condition that in return they will offer blood to her in the story of the creation of humanity quetzalcoatl travels with his twin xolotl to the underworld and brings back bones which are then ground like corn on a metate by the goddess cihuacoatl the resulting dough is given human form and comes to life when quetzalcoatl imbues it with his blood 116 huitzilopochtli is the deity tied to the mexica tribe and he figures in the story of the origin and migrations of the tribe on their journey huitzilopochtli in the form of a deity bundle carried by the mexica priest continuously spurs the tribe by pushing them into conflict with their neighbors whenever they are settled in a place in another myth huitzilopochtli defeats and dismembers his sister the lunar deity coyolxauhqui and her four hundred brothers at the hill of coatepetl the southern side of the great temple also called coatepetl was a representation of this myth and at the foot of the stairs lay a large stone monolith carved with a representation of the dismembered goddess 117 calendar main article aztec calendar the aztec calendar stone or sun stone a large stone monolith unearthed in 1790 in mexico city depicting the five eras of aztec mythical history with calendric images aztec religious life was organized around the calendars like most mesoamerican people the aztecs used two calendars simultaneously a ritual calendar of 260 days called the tonalpohualli and a solar calendar of 365 days called the xiuhpohualli each day had a name and number in both calendars and the combination of two dates was unique within 52 years the tonalpohualli was mostly used for divinatory purposes and it consisted of 20 day signs and number coefficients of 1 13 that cycled in a fixed order the xiuhpohualli was made up of 18 months of 20 days and with a remainder of five void days at the end of a cycle before the new xiuhpohualli cycle began each 20 day month was named after the specific ritual festival that began the month many of which contained a relation to the agricultural cycle whether and how the aztec calendar was corrected for leap year is a matter of discussion among specialists the monthly rituals involved the entire population as rituals were performed in each household in the calpolli temples and the main sacred precinct many festivals involved different forms of dancing as well as the reenactment of mythical narratives by deity impersonators and the offering of sacrifice in the form of food animals and human victims 118 every 52 years the two calendars reached their shared starting point and a new calendar cycle began this calendar event was celebrated with a ritual known as xiuhmolpilli or the new fire ceremony in this ceremony old pottery was broken in all homes and all fires in the aztec realm were put out then a new fire was drilled over the breast of a sacrificial victim and runners brought the new fire to the different calpolli communities where fire was redistributed to each home the night without fire was associated with the fear that star demons tzitzimimeh might descend and devour the earth ending the fifth period of the sun 119 human sacrifice and cannibalism main articles human sacrifice in aztec culture and cannibalism in the americas aztecs ritual human sacrifice as shown in the codex magliabechiano to the aztecs death was instrumental in the perpetuation of creation and gods and humans alike had the responsibility of sacrificing themselves to allow life to continue as described in the myth of creation above humans were understood to be responsible for the sun s continued revival as well as for paying the earth for its continued fertility blood sacrifice in various forms was conducted both humans and animals were sacrificed depending on the god to be placated and the ceremony being conducted and priests of some gods were sometimes required to provide their blood through self mutilation it is known that some rituals included acts of cannibalism with the captor and his family consuming part of the flesh of their sacrificed captives but it is not known how widespread this practice was 120 121 while human sacrifice was practiced throughout mesoamerica the aztecs according to their accounts brought this practice to an unprecedented level for example for the reconsecration of the great pyramid of tenochtitlan in 1487 aztec and spanish sources later said that 80 400 prisoners were sacrificed over four days reportedly by ahuitzotl the great speaker himself this number however is considered by many scholars as wildly exaggerated other estimates place the number of human sacrifices at between 1 000 and 2...
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