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n and the conditions of soil and site remain unchanged it will make its most rapid growth in youth and gradually decline the annual rings of growth are for many years quite wide but later they become narrower and narrower since each succeeding ring is laid down on the outside of the wood previously formed it follows that unless a tree materially increases its production of wood from year to year the rings must necessarily become thinner as the trunk gets wider as a tree reaches maturity its crown becomes more open and the annual wood production is lessened thereby reducing still more the width of the growth rings in the case of forest grown trees so much depends upon the competition of the trees in their struggle for light and nourishment that periods of rapid and slow growth may alternate some trees such as southern oaks maintain the same width of ring for hundreds of years on the whole as a tree gets larger in diameter the width of the growth rings decreases knots a knot on a tree trunk as a tree grows lower branches often die and their bases may become overgrown and enclosed by subsequent layers of trunk wood forming a type of imperfection known as a knot the dead branch may not be attached to the trunk wood except at its base and can drop out after the tree has been sawn into boards knots affect the technical properties of the wood usually reducing tension strength 13 but may be exploited for visual effect in a longitudinally sawn plank a knot will appear as a roughly circular solid usually darker piece of wood around which the grain of the rest of the wood flows parts and rejoins within a knot the direction of the wood grain direction is up to 90 degrees different from the grain direction of the regular wood in the tree a knot is either the base of a side branch or a dormant bud a knot when the base of a side branch is conical in shape hence the roughly circular cross section with the inner tip at the point in stem diameter at which the plant s vascular cambium was located when the branch formed as a bud in lumber and structural timber grading knots are classified according to their form size and soundness and the firmness with which they are held in place this firmness is affected by among other factors the length of time for which the branch was dead while the attaching stem continued to grow wood knot in vertical section knots materially affect cracking and warping ease in working and cleavability of timber they are defects which weaken timber and lower its value for structural purposes where strength is an important consideration the weakening effect is much more serious when timber is subjected to forces perpendicular to the grain and or tension than when under load along the grain and or compression the extent to which knots affect the strength of a beam depends upon their position size number and condition a knot on the upper side is compressed while one on the lower side is subjected to tension if there is a season check in the knot as is often the case it will offer little resistance to this tensile stress small knots may be located along the neutral plane of a beam and increase the strength by preventing longitudinal shearing knots in a board or plank are least injurious when they extend through it at right angles to its broadest surface knots which occur near the ends of a beam do not weaken it sound knots which occur in the central portion one fourth the height of the beam from either edge are not serious defects samuel j record the mechanical properties of wood 14 knots do not necessarily influence the stiffness of structural timber this will depend on the size and location stiffness and elastic strength are more dependent upon the sound wood than upon localized defects the breaking strength is very susceptible to defects sound knots do not weaken wood when subject to compression parallel to the grain in some decorative applications wood with knots may be desirable to add visual interest in applications where wood is painted such as skirting boards fascia boards door frames and furniture resins present in the timber may continue to bleed through to the surface of a knot for months or even years after manufacture and show as a yellow or brownish stain a knot primer paint or solution knotting correctly applied during preparation may do much to reduce this problem but it is difficult to control completely especially in mass produced kiln dried timber stocks heartwood and sapwood heartwood redirects here for other uses see heartwood disambiguation sapwood redirects here for the missile also called ss 6 sapwood see r7 semyorka see also trunk botany a section of a yew branch showing 27 annual growth rings pale sapwood dark heartwood and pith center dark spot the dark radial lines are small knots heartwood or duramen 15 is wood that as a result of a naturally occurring chemical transformation has become more resistant to decay heartwood formation is a genetically programmed process that occurs spontaneously some uncertainty exists as to whether the wood dies during heartwood formation as it can still chemically react to decay organisms but only once 16 the term heartwood derives solely from its position and not from any vital importance to the tree this is evidenced by the fact that a tree can thrive with its heart completely decayed some species begin to form heartwood very early in life so having only a thin layer of live sapwood while in others the change comes slowly thin sapwood is characteristic of such species as chestnut black locust mulberry osage orange and sassafras while in maple ash hickory hackberry beech and pine thick sapwood is the rule 17 some others never form heartwood heartwood is often visually distinct from the living sapwood and can be distinguished in a cross section where the boundary will tend to follow the growth rings for example it is sometimes much darker other processes such as decay or insect invasion can also discolor wood even in woody plants that do not form heartwood which may lead to confusion sapwood or alburnum 18 is the younger outermost wood in the growing tree it is living wood 19 and its principal functions are to conduct water from the roots to the leaves and to store up and give back according to the season the reserves prepared in the leaves by the time they become competent to conduct water all xylem tracheids and vessels have lost their cytoplasm and the cells are therefore functionally dead all wood in a tree is first formed as sapwood the more leaves a tree bears and the more vigorous its growth the larger the volume of sapwood required hence trees making rapid growth in the open have thicker sapwood for their size than trees of the same species growing in dense forests sometimes trees of species that do form heartwood grown in the open may become of considerable size 30 cm 12 in or more in diameter before any heartwood begins to form for example in second growth hickory or open grown pines cross section of an oak log showing growth rings no definite relation exists between the annual rings of growth and the amount of sapwood within the same species the cross sectional area of the sapwood is very roughly proportional to the size of the crown of the tree if the rings are narrow more of them are required than where they are wide as the tree gets larger the sapwood must necessarily become thinner or increase materially in volume sapwood is relatively thicker in the upper portion of the trunk of a tree than near the base because the age and the diameter of the upper sections are less when a tree is very young it is covered with limbs almost if not entirely to the ground but as it grows older some or all of them will eventually die and are either broken off or fall off subsequent growth of wood may completely conceal the stubs which will remain as knots no matter how smooth and clear a log is on the outside it is more or less knotty near the middle consequently the sapwood of an old tree and particularly of a forest grown tree will be freer from knots than the inner heartwood since in most uses of wood knots are defects that weaken the timber and interfere with its ease of working and other properties it follows that a given piece of sapwood because of its position in the tree may well be stronger than a piece of heartwood from the same tree different pieces of wood cut from a large tree may differ decidedly particularly if the tree is big and mature in some trees the wood laid on late in the life of a tree is softer lighter weaker and more even textured than that produced earlier but in other trees the reverse applies this may or may not correspond to heartwood and sapwood in a large log the sapwood because of the time in the life of the tree when it was grown may be inferior in hardness strength and toughness to equally sound heartwood from the same log in a smaller tree the reverse may be true color the wood of coast redwood is distinctively red in species which show a distinct difference between heartwood and sapwood the natural color of heartwood is usually darker than that of the sapwood and very frequently the contrast is conspicuous see section of yew log above this is produced by deposits in the heartwood of chemical substances so that a dramatic color variation does not imply a significant difference in the mechanical properties of heartwood and sapwood although there may be a marked biochemical difference between the two some experiments on very resinous longleaf pine specimens indicate an increase in strength due to the resin which increases the strength when dry such resin saturated heartwood is called fat lighter structures built of fat lighter are almost impervious to rot and termites and very flammable tree stumps of old longleaf pines are often dug split into small pieces and sold as kindling for fires stumps thus dug may actually remain a century or more since being cut spruce impregnated with crude resin and dried is also greatly increased in strength thereby since the latewood of a growth ring is usually darker in color than the earlywood this fact may be used in visually judging the density and therefore the hardness and strength of the material this is particularly the case with coniferous woods in ring porous woods the vessels of the early wood often appear on a finished surface as darker than the denser latewood though on cross sections of heartwood the reverse is commonly true otherwise the color of wood is no indication of strength abnormal discoloration of wood often denotes a diseased condition indicating unsoundness the black check in western hemlock is the result of insect attacks the reddish brown streaks so common in hickory and certain other woods are mostly the result of injury by birds the discoloration is merely an indication of an injury and in all probability does not of itself affect the properties of the wood certain rot producing fungi impart to wood characteristic colors which thus become symptomatic of weakness ordinary sap staining is due to fungal growth but does not necessarily produce a weakening effect water content water occurs in living wood in three locations namely in the cell walls in the protoplasmic contents of the cells as free water in the cell cavities and spaces especially of the xylem equilibrium moisture content in wood in heartwood it occurs only in the first and last forms wood that is thoroughly air dried in equilibrium with the moisture content of the air retains 8 16 of the water in the cell walls and none or practically none in the other forms even oven dried wood retains a small percentage of moisture but for all except chemical purposes may be considered absolutely dry the general effect of the water content upon the wood substance is to render it softer and more pliable a similar effect occurs in the softening action of water on rawhide paper or cloth within certain limits the greater the water content the greater its softening effect the moisture in wood can be measured by several different moisture meters drying produces a decided increase in the strength of wood particularly in small specimens an extreme example is the case of a completely dry spruce block 5 cm in section which will sustain a permanent load four times as great as a green undried block of the same size will the greatest strength increase due to drying is in the ultimate crushing strength and strength at elastic limit in endwise compression these are followed by the modulus of rupture and stress at elastic limit in cross bending while the modulus of elasticity is least affected 14 structure spring wood redirects here for other uses see springwood disambiguation magnified cross section of black walnut showing the vessels medullary rays white lines and annual rings this is intermediate between diffuse porous and ring porous with vessel size declining gradually wood is a heterogeneous hygroscopic cellular and anisotropic or more specifically orthotropic material it consists of cells and the cell walls are composed of micro fibrils of cellulose 40 50 and hemicellulose 15 25 impregnated with lignin 15 30 20 in coniferous or softwood species the wood cells are mostly of one kind tracheids and as a result the material is much more uniform in structure than that of most hardwoods there are no vessels pores in coniferous wood such as one sees so prominently in oak and ash for example the structure of hardwoods is more complex 21 the water conducting capability is mostly taken care of by vessels in some cases oak chestnut ash these are quite large and distinct in others buckeye poplar willow too small to be seen without a hand lens in discussing such woods it is customary to divide them into two large classes ring porous and diffuse porous 22 in ring porous species such as ash black locust catalpa chestnut elm hickory mulberry and oak 22 the larger vessels or pores as cross sections of vessels are called are localized in the part of the growth ring formed in spring thus forming a region of more or less open and porous tissue the rest of the ring produced in summer is made up of smaller vessels and a much greater proportion of wood fibers these fibers are the elements which give strength and toughness to wood while the vessels are a source of weakness 23 in diffuse porous woods the pores are evenly sized so that the water conducting capability is scattered throughout the growth ring instead of being collected in a band or row examples of this kind of wood are alder 22 basswood 24 birch 22 buckeye maple willow and the populus species such as aspen cottonwood and poplar 22 some species such as walnut and cherry are on the border between the two classes forming an intermediate group 24 earlywood and latewood in softwood earlywood and latewood in a softwood radial view growth rings closely spaced in rocky mountain douglas fir in temperate softwoods there often is a marked difference between latewood and earlywood the latewood will be...
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