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r myth of how the earth was created tezcatlipoca and quetzalcoatl appear as allies defeating a giant crocodile cipactli and requiring her to become the earth allowing humans to carve into her flesh and plant their seeds on the condition that in return they will offer blood to her in the story of the creation of humanity quetzalcoatl travels with his twin xolotl to the underworld and brings back bones which are then ground like corn on a metate by the goddess cihuacoatl the resulting dough is given human form and comes to life when quetzalcoatl imbues it with his blood 116 huitzilopochtli is the deity tied to the mexica tribe and he figures in the story of the origin and migrations of the tribe on their journey huitzilopochtli in the form of a deity bundle carried by the mexica priest continuously spurs the tribe by pushing them into conflict with their neighbors whenever they are settled in a place in another myth huitzilopochtli defeats and dismembers his sister the lunar deity coyolxauhqui and her four hundred brothers at the hill of coatepetl the southern side of the great temple also called coatepetl was a representation of this myth and at the foot of the stairs lay a large stone monolith carved with a representation of the dismembered goddess 117 calendar main article aztec calendar the aztec calendar stone or sun stone a large stone monolith unearthed in 1790 in mexico city depicting the five eras of aztec mythical history with calendric images aztec religious life was organized around the calendars like most mesoamerican people the aztecs used two calendars simultaneously a ritual calendar of 260 days called the tonalpohualli and a solar calendar of 365 days called the xiuhpohualli each day had a name and number in both calendars and the combination of two dates was unique within 52 years the tonalpohualli was mostly used for divinatory purposes and it consisted of 20 day signs and number coefficients of 1 13 that cycled in a fixed order the xiuhpohualli was made up of 18 months of 20 days and with a remainder of five void days at the end of a cycle before the new xiuhpohualli cycle began each 20 day month was named after the specific ritual festival that began the month many of which contained a relation to the agricultural cycle whether and how the aztec calendar was corrected for leap year is a matter of discussion among specialists the monthly rituals involved the entire population as rituals were performed in each household in the calpolli temples and the main sacred precinct many festivals involved different forms of dancing as well as the reenactment of mythical narratives by deity impersonators and the offering of sacrifice in the form of food animals and human victims 118 every 52 years the two calendars reached their shared starting point and a new calendar cycle began this calendar event was celebrated with a ritual known as xiuhmolpilli or the new fire ceremony in this ceremony old pottery was broken in all homes and all fires in the aztec realm were put out then a new fire was drilled over the breast of a sacrificial victim and runners brought the new fire to the different calpolli communities where fire was redistributed to each home the night without fire was associated with the fear that star demons tzitzimimeh might descend and devour the earth ending the fifth period of the sun 119 human sacrifice and cannibalism main articles human sacrifice in aztec culture and cannibalism in the americas aztecs ritual human sacrifice as shown in the codex magliabechiano to the aztecs death was instrumental in the perpetuation of creation and gods and humans alike had the responsibility of sacrificing themselves to allow life to continue as described in the myth of creation above humans were understood to be responsible for the sun s continued revival as well as for paying the earth for its continued fertility blood sacrifice in various forms was conducted both humans and animals were sacrificed depending on the god to be placated and the ceremony being conducted and priests of some gods were sometimes required to provide their blood through self mutilation it is known that some rituals included acts of cannibalism with the captor and his family consuming part of the flesh of their sacrificed captives but it is not known how widespread this practice was 120 121 while human sacrifice was practiced throughout mesoamerica the aztecs according to their accounts brought this practice to an unprecedented level for example for the reconsecration of the great pyramid of tenochtitlan in 1487 aztec and spanish sources later said that 80 400 prisoners were sacrificed over four days reportedly by ahuitzotl the great speaker himself this number however is considered by many scholars as wildly exaggerated other estimates place the number of human sacrifices at between 1 000 and 20 000 annually 122 123 the scale of aztec human sacrifice has provoked many scholars to consider what may have been the driving factor behind this aspect of aztec religion in the 1970s michael harner and marvin harris argued that the motivation behind human sacrifice among the aztecs was the cannibalization of the sacrificial victims depicted for example in codex magliabechiano harner claimed that very high population pressure and an emphasis on maize agriculture without domesticated herbivores led to a deficiency of essential amino acids among the aztecs 124 while there is universal agreement that the aztecs practiced sacrifice there is a lack of scholarly consensus as to whether cannibalism was widespread harris the author of cannibals and kings 1977 has propagated the claim originally proposed by harner that the flesh of the victims was a part of an aristocratic diet as a reward since the aztec diet was lacking in proteins these claims have been refuted by bernard ortíz montellano who in his studies of aztec health diet and medicine demonstrates that while the aztec diet was low in animal proteins it was rich in vegetable proteins ortiz also points to the preponderance of human sacrifice during periods of food abundance following harvests compared to periods of food scarcity the insignificant quantity of human protein available from sacrifices and the fact that aristocrats already had easy access to animal protein 125 122 today many scholars point to ideological explanations of the practice noting how the public spectacle of sacrificing warriors from conquered states was a major display of political power supporting the claim of the ruling classes to divine authority 126 it also served as an important deterrent against rebellion by subjugated polities against the aztec state and such deterrents were crucial for the loosely organized empire to cohere 127 art and cultural production the aztecs greatly appreciated the toltecayotl arts and fine craftsmanship of the toltecs who predated the aztecs in central mexico the aztecs considered toltec productions to represent the finest state of culture the fine arts included writing and painting singing and composing poetry carving sculptures and producing mosaics making fine ceramics producing complex featherwork and working metals including copper and gold artisans of the fine arts were referred to collectively as tolteca toltec 128 urban standard details mexico tenochtitlan s calmecac stone wall remnants in centro cultural de españa archaeological site mexico city the mask of xiuhtecuhtli 1400 1521 cedrela wood turquoise pine resin mother of pearl conch shell cinnabar height 16 8 cm 6 6 in width 15 2 cm 6 0 in british museum london double headed serpent 1450 1521 spanish cedar wood cedrela odorata turquoise shell traces of gilding 2 resins are used as adhesive pine resin and bursera resin height 20 3 cm 8 0 in width 43 3 cm 17 0 in depth 5 9 cm 2 3 in british museum page 12 of the codex borbonicus in the big square tezcatlipoca night and fate and quetzalcoatl feathered serpent before 1500 bast fiber paper height 38 cm 15 in length of the full manuscript 142 cm 56 in bibliothèque de l assemblée nationale paris aztec calendar stone 1502 1521 basalt diameter 3 58 m 11 7 ft thick 98 cm 39 in discovered on 17 december 1790 during repairs on the mexico city cathedral national museum of anthropology mexico city tlāloc effigy vessel 1440 1469 painted earthenware height 35 cm 14 in templo mayor museum mexico city kneeling female figure 15th early 16th century painted stone overall 54 61 cm 26 67 cm 21 50 in 10 50 in metropolitan museum of art new york city frog shaped necklace ornaments 15th early 16th century gold height 2 1 cm 0 83 in metropolitan museum of art new york city writing and iconography main article aztec writing ma hand and pach moss in nahuatl handmoss is synonym of raccoon the aztecs did not have a fully developed writing system like the maya however like the maya and zapotec they did use a writing system that combined logographic signs with phonetic syllable signs logograms would for example be the use of an image of a mountain to signify the word tepetl mountain whereas a phonetic syllable sign would be the use of an image of a tooth tlantli to signify the syllable tla in words unrelated to teeth the combination of these principles allowed the aztecs to represent the sounds of names of persons and places narratives tended to be represented through sequences of images using various iconographic conventions such as footprints to show paths temples on fire to show conquest events etc 129 epigrapher alfonso lacadena has demonstrated that the different syllable signs used by the aztecs almost enabled the representation of all the most frequent syllables of the nahuatl language with some notable exceptions 130 but some scholars have argued that such a high degree of phonetics was only achieved after the conquest when the aztecs had been introduced to the principles of phonetic writing by the spanish 131 other scholars notably gordon whittaker have argued that the syllabic and phonetic aspects of aztec writing were considerably less systematic and more creative than lacadena s proposal suggests arguing that aztec writing never coalesced into a strictly syllabic system such as the maya writing but rather used a wide range of different types of phonetic signs 132 the image to the right demonstrates the use of phonetic signs for writing place names in the colonial aztec codex mendoza the uppermost place is mapachtepec meaning literally hill of the raccoon but the glyph includes the phonetic prefixes ma hand and pach moss over a mountain tepetl spelling the word mapach raccoon phonetically instead of logographically the other two place names mazatlan place of many deer and huitztlan place of many thorns use the phonetic element tlan represented by a tooth tlantli combined with a deer head to spell maza mazatl deer and a thorn huitztli to spell huitz 133 music song and poetry frame drum huehuetl played by a youth in aztec themed costume in amecameca state of mexico 2010 song and poetry were highly regarded there were presentations and poetry contests at most of the aztec festivals there were also dramatic presentations that included players musicians and acrobats there were several different genres of cuicatl song yaocuicatl was devoted to war and the god s of war teocuicatl to the gods and creation myths and adoration of said figures xochicuicatl to flowers a symbol of poetry itself and indicative of the highly metaphorical nature of poetry that often used duality to convey multiple layers of meaning prose was tlahtolli also with its different categories and divisions 134 135 a key aspect of aztec poetics was the use of parallelism using a structure of embedded couplets to express different perspectives on the same element 136 some such couplets were diphrasisms conventional metaphors whereby an abstract concept was expressed metaphorically by using two more concrete concepts for example the nahuatl expression for poetry was in xochitl in cuicatl a dual term meaning the flower the song 137 a remarkable amount of this poetry survives having been collected during the era of the conquest in some cases poetry is attributed to individual authors such as nezahualcoyotl tlatoani of texcoco and cuacuauhtzin lord of tepechpan but whether these attributions reflect actual authorship is a matter of opinion an important collection of such poems is romances de los señores de la nueva españa collected tezcoco 1582 probably by juan bautista de pomar nb 9 and the cantares mexicanos 138 both men and women were poets in aztec society illustrating pre hispanic mexico s gender parallelism in upper class society 139 one famous female poet is macuilxochitzin whose work primarily focused on the aztec conquest 140 ceramics an aztec bowl for everyday use black on orange ware a simple aztec iv style flower design an aztec polychrome vessel typical of the cholula region a life size ceramic sculpture of an aztec eagle warrior the aztecs produced ceramics of different types common are orange wares which are orange or buff burnished ceramics with no slip red wares are ceramics with a reddish slip polychrome ware is ceramics with a white or orange slip with painted designs in orange red brown and or black very common is black on orange ware which is orange ware decorated with painted designs in black 141 142 143 aztec black on orange ceramics are chronologically classified into four phases aztec i and ii corresponding to c 1100 1350 early aztec period aztec iii c 1350 1520 and the last phase aztec iv was the early colonial period aztec i is characterized by floral designs and day name glyphs aztec ii is characterized by a stylized grass design above calligraphic designs such as s curves or loops aztec iii is characterized by very simple line designs aztec iv continues some pre columbian designs but adds european influenced floral designs there were local variations on each of these styles and archeologists continue to refine the ceramic sequence 142 typical vessels for everyday use were clay griddles for cooking comalli bowls and plates for eating caxitl pots for cooking comitl molcajetes or mortar type vessels with slashed bases for grinding chilli molcaxitl and different kinds of braziers tripod dishes and biconical goblets vessels were fired in simple updraft kilns or even in open firing in pit kilns at low temperatures 142 polychrome ceramics were imported from the cholula region also known as mixteca puebla style and these wares were highly prized as a luxury ware whereas the local black on orange styles were also for everyday use 144 painted art page from the pre columbian codex borgia a folding codex painted on deer skin prepared with gesso aztec painted art was produced on animal skin mostly deer on cotton lienzos and amate paper made from bark e g from trema micrantha or ficus aurea it was also produced on ceramics and carved in wood and stone the surface of the material was often first treated with gesso to make the ...
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