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nted like they are represented in the codices one mural discovered in tlateloco depicts an old man and an old woman this may represent the gods cipactonal and oxomico sculpture the coatlicue statue in the national museum of anthropology sculptures were carved in stone and wood but few wood carvings have survived 150 aztec stone sculptures exist in many sizes from small figurines and masks to large monuments and are characterized by a high quality of craftsmanship 151 many sculptures were carved in highly realistic styles for example realistic sculpture of animals 152 in aztec artwork some monumental stone sculptures have been preserved such sculptures usually functioned as adornments for religious architecture particularly famous monumental rock sculpture includes the so called aztec sunstone or calendarstone discovered in 1790 also discovered in 1790 excavations of the zócalo was the 2 7 meter tall 8 9 ft coatlicue statue made of andesite representing a serpentine chthonic goddess with a skirt made of rattlesnakes the coyolxauhqui stone representing the dismembered goddess coyolxauhqui found in 1978 was at the foot of the staircase leading up to the great temple in tenochtitlan 153 two important types of sculpture are unique to the aztecs and related to the context of ritual sacrifice the cuauhxicalli or eagle vessel large stone bowls often shaped like eagles or jaguars used as a receptacle for extracted human hearts the temalacatl a monumental carved stone disk to which war captives were tied and sacrificed in a form of gladiatorial combat the most well known examples of this type of sculpture are the stone of tizoc and the stone of motecuzoma i both carved with images of warfare and conquest by specific aztec rulers many smaller stone sculptures depicting deities also exist the style used in religious sculpture was rigid stances likely meant to create a powerful experience for the onlooker 152 although aztec stone sculptures are now displayed in museums as unadorned rock they were originally painted in vivid polychrome color sometimes covered first with a base coat of plaster 154 early spanish conquistador accounts also describe stone sculptures as having been decorated with precious stones and metal inserted into the plaster 152 further information serpents in aztec art featherwork main article mexican featherwork aztec feather shield displaying the stepped fret design called xicalcoliuhqui in nahuatl c 1520 landesmuseum württemberg an especially prized art form among the aztecs was featherwork the creation of intricate and colorful mosaics of feathers and their use in garments as well as decoration on weaponry war banners and warrior suits the class of highly skilled and honored craftsmen who created feather objects was called the amanteca 155 named after the amantla neighborhood in tenochtitlan where they lived and worked 156 they did not pay taxes nor were required to perform public service the florentine codex gives information about how feather works were created the amanteca had two ways of creating their works one was to secure the feathers in place using agave cords for three dimensional objects such as fly whisks fans bracelets headgear and other objects the second and more difficult was a mosaic type technique which the spanish also called feather painting these were done principally on feather shields and cloaks for idols feather mosaics were arrangements of minute fragments of feathers from a wide variety of birds generally worked on a paper base made from cotton and paste then itself backed with amate paper but bases of other types of paper and directly on amate were done as well these works were done in layers with common feathers dyed feathers and precious feathers first a model was made with lower quality feathers and the precious feathers were found only on the top layer the adhesive for the feathers in the mesoamerican period was made from orchid bulbs feathers from local and faraway sources were used especially in the aztec empire the feathers were obtained from wild birds as well as from domesticated turkeys and ducks with the finest quetzal feathers coming from chiapas guatemala and honduras these feathers were obtained through trade and taxes due to the difficulty of conserving feathers fewer than ten pieces of original aztec featherwork exist today 157 colonial period 1521 1821 main article nahuas colonial period further information society in the spanish colonial americas codex kingsborough showing the abuse by spaniards of a nahua under the encomienda spanish labor system mexico city was built on the ruins of tenochtitlan gradually replacing and covering the lake the island and the architecture of aztec tenochtitlan 158 159 160 after the fall of tenochtitlan aztec warriors were enlisted as auxiliary troops alongside the spanish tlaxcalteca allies and aztec forces participated in all of the subsequent campaigns of conquest in northern and southern mesoamerica this meant that aspects of aztec culture and the nahuatl language continued to expand during the early colonial period as aztec auxiliary forces made permanent settlements in many of the areas that were put under the spanish crown 161 the aztec ruling dynasty continued to govern san juan tenochtitlan a division of the spanish capital of mexico city but the subsequent indigenous rulers were mostly puppets installed by the spanish one was andrés de tapia motelchiuh who was appointed by the spanish other former aztec city states likewise were established as colonial indigenous towns governed by a local indigenous gobernador this office was often initially held by the hereditary indigenous ruling line with the gobernador being the tlatoani but the two positions in many nahua towns became separated over time indigenous governors were in charge of the colonial political organization of the indians in particular they enabled the continued functioning of the tax and enslavement of indigenous commoners to benefit the spanish encomenderos encomenderos owned encomiendas large tracts of agricultural land on which the encomenderos and their slaves lived the spanish coerced the tribes into granting them private ownership of indigenous people and land for enslavement and encomiendas occasionally an indigenous individual benefited from this system and grew into substantial wealth and power come the colonial period 162 population decline main article population history of indigenous peoples of the americas depiction of smallpox during the spanish conquest in book xii of the florentine codex after the arrival of the europeans in mexico and the conquest indigenous populations declined significantly this was largely the result of the epidemics of viruses brought to the continent against which the natives had no immunity in 1520 1521 an outbreak of smallpox swept through the population of tenochtitlan and was decisive in the fall of the city further significant epidemics struck in 1545 and 1576 163 there has been no consensus about the population size of mexico at the time of european arrival early estimates gave very small population figures for the valley of mexico in 1942 kubler estimated a figure of 200 000 164 in 1963 borah and cook used preconquest tax lists to calculate the number of residents in central mexico estimating over 18 30 million their very high figure has been highly criticized for relying on unwarranted assumptions 165 archeologist william sanders based an estimate on archeological evidence of dwellings arriving at an estimate of 1 1 2 million inhabitants in the valley of mexico 166 whitmore used a computer simulation model based on colonial censuses to arrive at an estimate of 1 5 million for the basin in 1519 and an estimate of 16 million for all of mexico 167 depending on the estimations of the population in 1519 the scale of the decline in the 16th century range from around 50 percent to around 90 percent with sanders s and whitmore s estimates being around 90 percent 165 168 social and political continuity and change see also society in the spanish colonial americas josé sarmiento de valladares duke of moctezuma de tultengo viceroy of mexico although the aztec empire fell some of its highest elites continued to hold elite status in the colonial era the principal heirs of moctezuma ii and their descendants retained high status his son pedro moctezuma produced a son who married into the spanish aristocracy and a further generation saw the creation of the title duke of moctezuma de tultengo from 1696 to 1701 the viceroy of mexico held the title of count of moctezuma in 1766 the holder of the title became a grandee of spain in 1865 during the second mexican empire the title which was held by antonio maría moctezuma marcilla de teruel y navarro 14th count of moctezuma de tultengo was elevated to that of a duke thus becoming duke of moctezuma with de tultengo again added in 1992 by juan carlos i 169 two of moctezuma s daughters doña isabel moctezuma and her younger sister doña leonor moctezuma were granted extensive encomiendas in perpetuity by hernán cortes 170 the nahua peoples just like other mesoamerican peoples in colonial new spain were able to maintain many aspects of their social and political structure under colonial rule the basic division the spanish made was between the indigenous populations organized under the república de indios which was separate from the hispanic sphere the república de españoles the república de españoles included not just europeans but also africans and mixed race castas the spanish recognized the indigenous elites as nobles in the spanish colonial system maintaining the status distinction of the preconquest era and used these noblemen as intermediaries between the spanish colonial government and their communities this was contingent on their conversion to christianity and loyalty to the spanish crown colonial nahua polities had considerable autonomy to regulate their local affairs the spanish rulers did not entirely understand the indigenous political organization but they recognized the importance of the existing system and their elite rulers they reshaped the political system utilizing altepetl or city states as the basic unit of governance in the colonial era altepetl was renamed cabeceras or head towns although they often retained the term altepetl in local level nahuatl language documentation with outlying settlements governed by the cabeceras named sujetos subject communities in cabeceras the spanish created iberian style town councils or cabildos which usually continued to function as the elite ruling group had in the preconquest era 171 172 population decline due to epidemic disease resulted in many population shifts in settlement patterns and the formation of new population centers these were often forced resettlements under the spanish policy of congregación indigenous populations living in sparsely populated areas were resettled to form new communities making it easier for them to be brought within range of evangelization efforts and easier for the colonial state to exploit their labor 173 174 legacy aztec archeological sites are excavated and opened to the public and their artifacts are prominently displayed in museums place names and loanwords from the aztec language nahuatl permeate the mexican landscape and vocabulary and aztec symbols and mythology have been promoted by the mexican government and integrated into contemporary mexican nationalism as emblems of the country 175 during the 19th century the image of the aztecs as uncivilized barbarians was replaced with romanticized visions of the aztecs as original sons of the soil with a highly developed culture rivaling the ancient european civilizations when mexico became independent from spain a romanticized version of the aztecs became a source of images that could be used to ground the new nation as a unique blend of european and american 176 aztecs and mexico s national identity modern mexico flag depicting a mexican eagle perched on a prickly pear cactus devouring a rattlesnake the design is rooted in the legend of the aztec people 177 aztec culture and history have been central to the formation of a mexican national identity after mexican independence in 1821 in 17th and 18th century europe the aztecs were generally described as barbaric gruesome and culturally inferior 178 even before mexico achieved its independence american born spaniards criollos drew on aztec history to ground their search for symbols of local pride separate from that of spain intellectuals used aztec writings such as those collected by fernando de alva ixtlilxochitl and writings of hernando alvarado tezozomoc and chimalpahin to understand mexico s past this search became the basis for what historian d a brading calls creole patriotism seventeenth century cleric and scientist carlos de sigüenza y góngora acquired the manuscript collection of texcocan nobleman alva ixtlilxochitl creole jesuit francisco javier clavijero published la historia antigua de méxico 1780 1781 in his italian exile following the expulsion of the jesuits in 1767 in which he traces the history of the aztecs from their migration to the last aztec ruler cuauhtemoc he wrote it expressly to defend mexico s indigenous past against the slanders of contemporary writers such as pauw buffon raynal and william robertson 179 archeological excavations in 1790 in the capital s main square uncovered two massive stone sculptures buried immediately after the fall of tenochtitlan in the conquest unearthed were the famous calendar stone as well as a statue of coatlicue antonio de león y gama s 1792 descripción histórico y cronológico de las dos piedras examines the two stone monoliths a decade later german scientist alexander von humboldt spent a year in mexico one of his early publications from that period was views of the cordilleras and monuments of the indigenous peoples of the americas 180 humboldt was important in disseminating images of the aztecs to scientists and general readers in the western world 181 in the realm of religion late colonial paintings of the virgin of guadalupe have examples of her depicted floating above the iconic nopal cactus of the aztecs juan diego the nahua to whom the apparition was said to appear links the dark virgin to mexico s aztec past 182 when new spain achieved independence in 1821 and became a monarchy the first mexican empire its flag had the traditional aztec eagle on a nopal cactus 183 this emblem has also been adopted as mexico s national coat of arms and is emblazoned on official buildings seals and signs 184 tensions within post independence mexico pitted those rejecting the ancient civilizations of mexico as a source of national pride the hispanistas mostly politically conservative mexican elites and those who saw them as a source of pride the indigenistas who were mostly liberal mexican elites although the flag of the mexican republic had the symbol o...
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