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if either vowel is nasalised consonants labial dental alveolar retroflex post alv palatal velar uvular glottal nasal m ਮ م n ਨ ن 47 ɳ ਣ ݨ ɲ ਞ ن٘ 48 ŋ ਙ ن٘ 48 stop affricate tenuis p ਪ پ t̪ ਤ ت ʈ ਟ ٹ t͡ʃ ਚ چ k ਕ ک q ਕ਼ ق aspirated pʰ ਫ پھ tʰ ਥ تھ ʈʰ ਠ ٹھ t͡ʃʰ ਛ چھ kʰ ਖ کھ voiced b ਬ ب d̪ ਦ د ɖ ਡ ڈ d͡ʒ ਜ ج ɡ ਗ گ tonal ਭ بھ ਧ دھ ਢ ڈھ ਝ جھ ਘ گھ fricative voiceless f ਫ਼ ف s ਸ س ʃ ਸ਼ ش x ਖ਼ خ voiced z ਜ਼ ز ɣ ਗ਼ غ ɦ ਹ ہ rhotic ɾ r ਰ ر ɽ ੜ ڑ approximant ʋ ਵ و l ਲ ل ɭ ਲ਼ 49 j ਯ ی note for the tonal stops refer to the next section about tone the three retroflex consonants ɳ ɽ ɭ do not occur initially and the nasals ŋ ɲ most commonly occur as allophones of n in clusters with velars and palatals there are few exceptions the well established phoneme ʃ may be realised allophonically as the voiceless retroflex fricative ʂ in learned clusters with retroflexes due to its foreign origin it is often also realised as s in e g shalwār salᵊ ʋaːɾᵊ the phonemic status of the consonants f z x ɣ q varies with familiarity with hindustani norms more so with the gurmukhi script with the pairs f pʰ z d͡ʒ x kʰ ɣ g and q k systematically distinguished in educated speech 50 q being the most rarely pronounced the retroflex lateral is most commonly analysed as an approximant as opposed to a flap 51 52 53 some speakers soften the voiceless aspirates t͡ʃʰ pʰ kʰ into fricatives ɕ f x respectively citation needed in rare cases the ɲ and ŋ phonemes in shahmukhi may be represented with letters from sindhi citation needed the ɲ phoneme which is more common than ŋ is written as نی or نج depending on its phonetic preservation e g نیاݨا ɲaːɳaː preserved ñ as opposed to کنج kiɲd͡ʒ assimilated into nj ŋ is always written as نگ diphthongs like hindustani the diphthongs əɪ and əʊ have mostly disappeared but are still retained in some dialects phonotactically long vowels aː iː uː are treated as doubles of their short vowel counterparts ə ɪ ʊ rather than separate phonemes hence diphthongs like ai and au get monophthongised into eː and oː and āi and āu into ɛː and ɔː respectively citation needed the phoneme j is very fluid in punjabi j is only truly pronounced word initially even then it often becomes d͡ʒ where it is otherwise ɪ or i tone unusually for an indo aryan language punjabi distinguishes lexical tones 54 two are distinguished in punjabi falling and rising 55 56 57 these are tone contours but are often mislabelled as low and high tones and sometimes as high falling and low rising although there is no evidence that punjabi tones begin or end at a consistent pitch about 75 of punjabi words have no rising or falling tone and this absence of tone is described with a third label called level tone 55 the transcriptions and tone annotations in the examples below are based on those provided in punjabi university patiala s punjabi english dictionary 58 examples pronunciation meaning gurmukhi shahmukhi transliteration ipa tone ਘਰ گھر ghar kə̀ rᵊ 59 j falling house ਕਰ੍ਹਾ کرھا karhā kə́ ra 60 rising powdered remains of cow dung cakes ਕਰ کر kar kər 61 level do doing ਝੜ جھڑ jhaṛ t͡ʃə̀ ɽᵊ 62 falling shade caused by clouds ਚੜ੍ਹ چڑھ chaṛh t͡ʃə́ ɽᵊ 63 rising rise to fame ascendancy ਚੜ چڑ caṛ t͡ʃəɽ 63 level hangnail there are some words which are said to have rising tone in the first syllable and falling in the second some writers describe this as a fourth tone 55 however an acoustic study of six punjabi speakers in the united states found no evidence of a separate falling tone following a medial consonant 64 ਮੋਢਾ موڈھا móḍà rising falling shoulder some punjabi distinct tones for gh jh ḍh dh bh it is considered that these tones arose when voiced aspirated consonants gh jh ḍh dh bh lost their aspiration mechanics in punjabi tone is induced by the loss of h in tonal consonants tonal consonants are any voiced aspirates ʱ and the voiced glottal fricative ɦ these include the five voiced aspirated plosives bh dh ḍh jh and gh which are represented by their own letters in gurmukhi the h consonant itself and any voiced consonants appended with h gurmukhi ੍ਹ perī̃ hāhā shahmukhi ھ dō caśmī hē usually ṛh mh nh rh and lh tonal consonants induce a rising tone also called high tone before them or a falling tone also called low tone after them e g kaḍḍh káḍḍ remove he è is tone is always induced onto the stressed syllable of a word e g paṛh ā ī paṛ ā̀ ī study m ō ḍhā m ṓ ḍā shoulder the five tonal plosives also become voiceless word initially e g ghar kàr house ḍhōl ṭṑl drum etc 57 tonogenesis in punjabi forfeits the sound of h for tone thus the more h is realised the less tonal a word will be pronounced and vice versa tone is sometimes withheld when words are spoken emphatically or on their own as a form of identification citation needed sequences with the consonant h have some additional gimmicks the sequences ih uh ahi and ahu change into the vowels eː oː ɛː and ɔː respectively and acquire a rising tone e g muhrā mṓrā chessman rahiṇ réṇ stay in the stressed sequence ah the vowel lengthens ā and acquires a rising tone aː e g qahvā qā́vā coffee dah dā́ ten in the final unstressed sequence ah the vowel becomes nasalised and long ā̃ e g bā́rah bā́rā̃ twelve tárah tárā̃ way when h is preceded by a short vowel proceeded by a long vowel and the latter is stressed the former vowel becomes weak or blends into the latter e g pahāṛ păā̀ṛ pə̯aː ɽə̆ mountain tuhāḍā tŭā̀ḍā tʊ̯aː ɖ ɖaː your the consonant h on its own is now silent or very weakly pronounced except word initially 65 however certain dialects which exert stronger tone particularly more northern punjabi varieties and dogri pronounce h as very faint thus tonal in all cases e g hatth àtth the jhangvi and shahpuri dialects of punjabi as they transition into saraiki show comparatively less realisation of tone than other punjabi varieties citation needed and do not induce the devoicing of the main five tonal consonants bh dh ḍh jh gh the gurmukhi script which was developed in the 16th century has separate letters for voiced aspirated sounds so it is thought that the change in pronunciation of the consonants and development of tones may have taken place since that time 57 some other languages in pakistan have also been found to have tonal distinctions including burushaski gujari hindko kalami shina and torwali 66 though these besides hindko seem to be independent of punjabi gemination gemination of a consonant doubling the letter is indicated with adhak in gurmukhi and tashdīd in shahmukhi 67 its inscription with a unique diacritic is a distinct feature of gurmukhi compared to brahmic scripts all consonants except six ṇ ṛ h r v y are regularly geminated the latter four are only geminated in loan words from other languages k there is a tendency to irregularly geminate consonants which follow long vowels except in the final syllable of a word e g menū̃ mennū̃ l it also causes the long vowels to shorten but remain peripheral distinguishing them from the central vowels ə ɪ ʊ this gemination is less prominent than the literarily regular gemination represented by the diacritics mentioned above before a non final prenasalised consonant m long vowels undergo the same change but no gemination occurs the true gemination of a consonant after a long vowel is unheard of but is written in some english loanwords to indicate short ɛ and ɔ e g ਡੈੱਡ ڈَیڈّ ɖɛɖː dead grammar main article punjabi grammar the 35 traditional characters of the gurmukhi script punjabi has a canonical word order of sov subject object verb 68 function words are largely postpositions marking grammatical case on a preceding nominal 69 punjabi distinguishes two genders two numbers and six cases direct oblique vocative ablative locative and instrumental the ablative occurs only in the singular in free variation with oblique case plus ablative postposition and the locative and instrumental are usually confined to set adverbial expressions 70 adjectives when declinable are marked for the gender number and case of the nouns they qualify 71 there is also a t v distinction upon the inflectional case is built a system of particles known as postpositions which parallel english s prepositions it is their use with a noun or verb that is what necessitates the noun or verb taking the oblique case and it is with them that the locus of grammatical function or case marking then lies the punjabi verbal system is largely structured around a combination of aspect and tense mood like the nominal system the punjabi verb takes a single inflectional suffix and is often followed by successive layers of elements like auxiliary verbs and postpositions to the right of the lexical base 72 vocabulary being an indo aryan language the core vocabulary of punjabi consists of tadbhav words inherited from sanskrit 73 74 it contains many loanwords from persian and arabic 73 writing systems shahmukhi alphabet ا ب پ ت ٹ ث ج چ ح خ د ڈ ذ ر ڑ ز ژ س ش ص ض ط ظ ع غ ف ق ک گ ل م ن ݨ ں و ه ھ ء ی ے extended perso arabic script history transliteration diacritics hamza numerals numeration v t e gurmukhi writing system on a sample logo the punjabi language is written in multiple scripts a phenomenon known as synchronic digraphia each of the major scripts currently in use is typically associated with a particular religious group 75 76 although the association is not absolute or exclusive 77 in india punjabi sikhs use gurmukhi a script of the brahmic family which has official status in the state of punjab in pakistan punjabi muslims use shahmukhi a variant of the perso arabic script and closely related to the urdu alphabet sometimes punjabi is recorded in the devanagari script in india albeit rarely 78 the punjabi hindus in india had a preference for devanagari another brahmic script also used for hindi and in the first decades since independence raised objections to the uniform adoption of gurmukhi in the state of punjab 79 but most have now switched to gurmukhi 80 and so the use of devanagari is rare 81 often in literature pakistani punjabi written in shahmukhi is referred as western punjabi or west punjabi and indian punjabi written in gurmukhi is referred as eastern punjabi or east punjabi although the underlying language is the same with a very slight shift in vocabulary towards islamic and sikh words respectively 82 the written standard for shahmukhi also slightly differs from that of gurmukhi as it is used for western dialects whereas gurumukhi is used to write eastern dialects historically various local brahmic scripts including laṇḍā and its descendants were also in use 81 83 the punjabi braille is used by the visually impaired there is an altered version of iast often used for punjabi in which the diphthongs ai and au are written as e and o and the long vowels e and o are written as ē and ō sample text this sample text was adapted from the punjabi wikipedia article on lahore gurmukhi ਲਹੌਰ ਪਾਕਿਸਤਾਨੀ ਪੰਜਾਬ ਦੀ ਰਾਜਧਾਨੀ ਹੈ ਲੋਕ ਗਿਣਤੀ ਦੇ ਨਾਲ਼ ਕਰਾਚੀ ਤੋਂ ਬਾਅਦ ਲਹੌਰ ਦੂਜਾ ਸਭ ਤੋਂ ਵੱਡਾ ਸ਼ਹਿਰ ਹੈ ਲਹੌਰ ਪਾਕਿਸਤਾਨ ਦਾ ਸਿਆਸੀ ਕਾਰੋਬਾਰੀ ਅਤੇ ਪੜ੍ਹਾਈ ਦਾ ਗੜ੍ਹ ਹੈ ਅਤੇ ਇਸੇ ਲਈ ਇਹਨੂੰ ਪਾਕਿਸਤਾਨ ਦਾ ਦਿਲ ਵੀ ਕਿਹਾ ਜਾਂਦਾ ਹੈ ਲਹੌਰ ਰਾਵੀ ਦਰਿਆ ਦੇ ਕੰਢੇ ਤੇ ਵੱਸਦਾ ਹੈ ਇਸਦੀ ਲੋਕ ਗਿਣਤੀ ਇੱਕ ਕਰੋੜ ਦੇ ਨੇੜੇ ਹੈ shahmukhi لہور پاکستانی پنجاب دی راجدھانی ہے لوک گݨتی دے نالؕ کراچی توں بعد لہور دوجا سبھ توں وڈا شہر ہے لہور پاکستان دا سیاسی رہتلی کاروباری اتے پڑھائی دا گڑھ ہے اتے ایسے لئی ایہنوں پاکستان دا دل وی کہا جاندا ہے لہور راوی دریا دے کنڈھے تے وسدا ہے ایسدی لوک گݨتی اک کروڑ دے نیڑے ہے transliteration lahaur pākistānī panjāb dī rājtā̀ni ài lok giṇtī de nāḷ karācī tõ bāad lahaur dūjā sáb tõ vaḍḍā šáir ài lahaur pākistān dā siāsī kārobāri ate paṛā̀ī dā gáṛ ài te ise laī ínū̃ pākistān dā dil vī kihā jāndā ài lahaur rāvī dariā de káṇḍè te vassdā ài isdī lok giṇtī ikk karoṛ de neṛe ài ipa lɐɔ̂ːɾᵊ paˑkˑɪ̽sᵊˈtaˑnˑi pɐɲˈd͡ʒaːbᵊ di ɾaːd͡ʒᵊ ˈd̥âˑnˑi ɛ̂ loːkᵊ ˈɡɪɳᵊti de naːɭᵊ kɐ̆ɾaˑt͡ʃˑi tõ bǎːdᵊ lɐɔ̂ːɾᵊ duˑd͡ʒˑa sɐ̌bᵊ tõ ʋɐɖːa ʃɛ̌ːɾᵊ ɛ̂ lɐɔ̂ːɾᵊ paˑkˑɪ̽sᵊˈtaːnᵊ da sɐ̆ˈjaˑsˑi kaːɾoˈbaːɾi ˈɐte pɐ̆ˈɽâːi da ɡɐ̌ɽᵊ ɛ̂ ˈɐte ˈɪse lɐi ˈěːnˑũ paˑkˑɪ̽sᵊˈtaːnᵊ da dɪlᵊ ʋi kɛ̌ːja d͡ʒaːnda ɛ̂ lɐɔ̂ːɾᵊ ˈɾaːʋi ˈdɐɾɐ̆ja de kɐ̌ɳɖe te ʋɐsːᵊda ɛ̂ ɪsᵊ di loːkᵊ ˈɡɪɳᵊti ɪkːᵊ kɐ̆ɾoːɽᵊ de neːɽe ɛ̂ translation lahore is the capital city of pakistani punjab after karachi lahore is the second largest city lahore is pakistan s political cultural and educational hub and so it is also said to be the heart of pakistan lahore lies on the bank of the ravi river its population is close to ten million people literature development main article punjabi literature medieval period fariduddin ganjshakar 1179 1266 is generally recognised as the first major poet of the punjabi language 84 roughly from the 12th century to the 19th century many great sufi saints and poets preached in the punjabi language the most prominent being bulleh shah punjabi sufi poetry also developed under shah hussain 1538 1599 sultan bahu 1630 1691 shah sharaf 1640 1724 ali haider 1690 1785 waris shah 1722 1798 saleh muhammad safoori 1747 1826 mian muhammad baksh 1830 1907 and khwaja ghulam farid 1845 1901 the sikh religion originated in the 15th century in the punjab region and punjabi is the predominant language spoken by sikhs 85 most portions of the guru granth sahib use the punjabi language written in gurmukhi though punjabi is not the only language used in sikh scriptures varan gyan ratnavali by 16th century historian bhai gurdas the janamsakhis stories on the life and legend of guru nanak 1469 1539 are early examples of punjabi prose literature the punjabi language is famous for its rich literature of qisse most of which are about love passion betrayal sacrifice social values and a common man s revolt against a larger system the qissa of heer ranjha by waris shah 1706 1798 is among the most popular of punjabi qissas other popular stories include sohni mahiwal by fazal shah mirza sahiban by hafiz barkhudar 1658 1707 sassui punnhun by hashim shah c 1735 c 1843 and qissa puran bhagat by qadaryar 1802 1892 86 heroic ballads known as vaar enjoy a rich oral tradition in punjabi famous vaars are chandi di var 1666 1708 nadir shah di vaar by najabat and the jangnama of shah mohammad 1780 1862 87 modern period ghadar di gunj 1913 newspaper in punjabi of ghadar party us based indian revolutionary party the victorian novel elizabethan drama free verse and modernism entered punjabi literature through the introduction of british education during the raj nanak singh 1897 1971 vir singh ishwar nanda amrita pritam 1919 2005 puran singh 1881 1931 dhani ram chatrik 1876 1957 diwan singh 1897 1944 and ustad daman 1911 1984 mohan singh 1905 78 and shareef kunjahi are some legendary punjabi writers of this period after independence of pakistan and india najm hossein syed fakhar zaman and afzal ahsan randhawa shafqat tanvir mirza ahmad salim and najm hosain syed munir niazi ali arshad mir pir hadi abdul mannan enriched punjabi literature in pakistan whereas jaswant singh kanwal 1919 2020 amrita pritam 1919 2005 jaswant singh rahi 1930 1996 shiv kumar batalvi 1936 1973 surjit patar 1...
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