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ory the primate ancestors of human beings already had social and political skills 1 30 the first forms of human social organization were families living in band societies as hunter gatherers 1 53 after the invention of agriculture around 7 000 8 000 bce across various parts of the world human societies started transitioning to tribal forms of organization 1 55 food surpluses made possible the development of a social elite who were not engaged in agriculture industry or commerce but dominated their communities and monopolized decision making nonetheless larger societies made it more feasible for people to adopt diverse decision making and governance models 2 there is evidence of diplomacy between different tribes but also of endemic warfare 3 26 this could have been caused by theft of livestock or crops abduction of women or resource and status competition 3 page needed the three age system of periodization of prehistory was first introduced for scandinavia by christian jürgensen thomsen in the 1830s by the 1860s it was embraced as a useful division of the earliest history of mankind in general 4 and began to be applied in assyriology the now conventional periodization in the archaeology of the ancient near east was developed in the 1920s to 1930s 5 non primary source needed ancient history edit main article ancient history the early distribution of political power was determined by the availability of fresh water fertile soil and temperate climate of different locations 3 24 25 these were all necessary for the development of highly organized societies 3 24 25 the locations of these early societies were near or benefiting from the edges of tectonic plates 6 25 the indus valley civilization was located next to the himalayas which were created by tectonic pressures and the indus and ganges rivers which deposit sediment from the mountains to produce fertile land 6 25 26 a similar dynamic existed in mesopotamia where the tigris and euphrates did the same with the zagros mountains 6 26 ancient egypt was helped by the nile depositing sediments from the east african highlands of its origins while the yellow river and yangtze acted in the same way for ancient china 6 347 eurasia was advantaged in the development of agriculture by the natural occurrence of domesticable wild grass species and the east west orientation of the landmass allowing for the easy spread of domesticated crops 6 87 a similar advantage was given to it by half of the world s large mammal species living there which could be domesticated 6 page needed as the cooling and drying of the climate by 3800 bce caused drought in mesopotamia village farmers began co operating and started creating larger settlements with irrigation systems 1 70 this new water infrastructure in turn required centralised administration with complex social organisation 1 70 however there is archaeological evidence that shows similar successes with more egalitarian and decentralized complex societies 7 the first cities and systems of greater social organisation emerged in mesopotamia followed within a few centuries by ones at the indus and yellow river valleys 6 73 in the cities the workforce could specialise as the whole population did not have to work for food production while stored food allowed for large armies to create empires 6 73 the first empires were those of ancient egypt and mesopotamia 3 24 25 smaller kingdoms existed in north china plain indo gangetic plain central asia anatolia eastern mediterranean and central america while the rest of humanity continued to live in small tribes 3 24 25 middle east and the mediterranean edit see also cradle of civilization ancient near east and ancient mediterranean overview map of the ancient near east the first states of sorts were those of early dynastic sumer and early dynastic egypt which arose from the uruk period and predynastic egypt respectively at approximately 3000bce 8 early dynastic egypt was based around the nile river in the north east of africa the kingdom s boundaries being based around the nile and stretching to areas where oases existed 8 9 11 upper and lower egypt were unified around 3150 bce by pharaoh menes 3 33 34 this process of consolidation was driven by the crowding of migrants from the expanding sahara in the nile delta 6 nevertheless political competition continued within the country between centers of power such as memphis and thebes 3 33 34 the prevailing north east trade winds made it easier to sail up the river thereby helping the unification of the state 6 72 the geopolitical environment of the egyptians had them surrounded by nubia in the smaller southern oases of the nile unreachable by boat as well as by libyan warlords operating from the oases around modern day benghazi and finally by raiders across the sinai and the sea 3 34 35 the country was well defended by natural barriers formed by the sahara on both sides though this also limited its ability to expand into a larger empire mostly remaining a regional power along the nile except for a conquest of the levant in the second millennium bce 6 72 the lack of timber also made it too expensive to build a large navy for power projection across the mediterranean or red seas 6 73 mesopotamian dominance edit main articles history of mesopotamia and fertile crescent mesopotamia is situated between the major rivers of tigris and euphrates and the first political power in the region was the akkadian empire starting around 2300 bce 3 39 40 they were preceded by sumer and later followed by babylon and assyria they faced competition from the mountainous areas to the north strategically positioned above the mesopotamian plains with kingdoms such as mitanni urartu elam and medes 3 39 40 the mesopotamians also innovated in governance by writing the first laws 3 39 40 a dry climate in the iron age caused turmoil as movements of people put pressure on the existing states resulting in the late bronze age collapse with cimmerians arameans dorians and the sea peoples migrating among others 3 41 babylon never recovered following the death of hammurabi in 1699 bce 3 41 following this assyria grew in power under adad nirari ii 3 58 by the late ninth century bce the assyrian empire controlled almost all of mesopotamia and much of the levant and anatolia 3 59 meanwhile egypt was weakened eventually breaking apart after the death of osorkon ii until 710 bce 3 61 in 853 the assyrians fought and won a battle against a coalition of babylon egypt persia israel aram and ten other nations with over 60 000 troops taking part according to contemporary sources 3 64 however the empire was weakened by internal struggles for power and was plunged into a decade of turmoil beginning with a plague in 763 bce 3 64 following revolts by cities and lesser kingdoms against the empire a coup d état was staged in 745 by tiglath pileser iii 3 94 he raised the army from 44 000 to 72 000 followed by his successor sennacherib who raised it to 208 000 and finally by ashurbanipal who raised an army of over 300 000 3 95 this allowed the empire to spread over cyprus the entire levant phrygia urartu cimmerians persia medes elam and babylon 3 95 persian dominance edit main article achaemenid empire by 650 bce assyria had started declining as a severe drought hit the middle east and an alliance was formed against them 3 98 eventually they were replaced by the median empire as the main power of the region following the battle of carchemish 605 bce and the battle of the eclipse 585 bce 3 the medians served as the launching pad for the rise of the persian empire 3 99 after first serving as vassals under the third persian king cambyses i their influence rose and in 553 bce they rose against the medians 3 99 by the death of cyrus the great the persian achaemenid empire reached from aegean sea to indus river and caucasus to nubia 3 101 the empire was divided into provinces ruled by satraps who collected taxes and were typically local power brokers 3 102 the empire controlled about a third of the world s farm land and a quarter of its population 3 104 in 522 bce after king cambyses ii s death darius the great took over power 3 130 greek dominance edit main article ancient greece as the population of ancient greece grew they began a colonization of the mediterranean region 3 107 this encouraged trade which in turn caused political changes in the city states with old elites being overthrown in corinth in 657 bce and in athens in 632 for example 3 108 there were many wars between the cities as well including the messenian wars 743 742 bce 685 668 bce the lelantine war 710 650 bce and the first sacred war 595 585 bce 3 108 in the seventh and sixth centuries corinth and sparta were the dominant powers of greece 3 109 the former was eventually supplanted by athens as the main sea power while sparta remained the dominant land force 3 109 110 in 499 bce in the ionian revolt greek cities in asia minor rebelled against the persian empire but were crushed in the battle of lade 3 132 after this the persians invaded the greek mainland in the greco persian wars 499 449 bce 3 132 the macedonian king philip ii 350 336 bce conquered much of greece 3 page needed in 338 bce he formed the league of corinth to liberate greeks in asia minor from the persians with 10 000 troops invading in 336 bce 3 page needed after his murder his son alexander the great took charge and crossed the dardanelles in 334 bce 3 136 after asia minor had been conquered alexander invaded levant egypt and mesopotamia defeating the persians under darius the great in the battle of gaugamela in 331 bce and ending the last resistance by 328 bce 3 136 after alexander s death in babylon in 323 bce the macedonian empire had no designated successor 3 137 this led to its division into four the antigonid dynasty in macedonia the attalid dynasty in anatolia the ptolemaic kingdom in egypt and the seleucid empire over mesopotamia 3 148 roman dominance edit main article ancient rome territory of rome the roman republic became dominant in the mediterranean basin in the 3rd century bce after defeating the samnites the gauls and the etruscans for control of the italian peninsula 3 149 150 in 264 bce it challenged its main rival carthage to a fight for sicily starting the punic wars 3 188 a truce was signed in 241 bce with rome gaining corsica and sardinia in addition to sicily 3 188 in 218 bce the carthaginian army general hannibal marched out of iberia towards italy crossing the alps with his war elephants 3 189 after 15 years of fighting the roman republican army beat him and then sent troops against carthage itself defeating it in 202 bce 3 190 the second punic war alone cost rome 100 000 casualties 3 191 in 146 bce carthage was finally destroyed completely at the end of the third punic war 3 193 rome suffered from various internal disturbances and instabilities in 133 bce tiberius gracchus was killed alongside hundreds of supporters after trying to redistribute public land to the poor under the lex sempronia agraria 3 194 the social war 91 88 bce was caused by neighbouring cities trying to secure themselves the benefits of roman citizenship 3 194 in 82 bce general sulla captured power violently ending the roman republic and becoming a dictator 3 195 following his death new power struggles emerged and in caesar s civil war 49 46 bce julius caesar and pompey fought over the empire with the former winning 3 196 after the assassination of julius caesar in 44 bce a second civil war broke out between his potential heirs mark antony and augustus the latter gaining the new title of roman emperor 3 196 this then led to the pax romana a long period of peace in the roman empire 3 197 the quarrels between the ptolemaic kingdom the seleucid empire the parthian empire and the kingdom of pontus in the near east allowed the romans to expand up to the euphrates 3 page needed during augustus reign the rhine danube and the sahara became the other borders of the empire 3 210 the population reached about 60 million 3 205 political instability in rome grew emperor caligula 37 41 ce was murdered by the praetorian guard to replace him with claudius 41 53 while his successor nero 54 68 was rumored to have burned rome down 3 213 the average reign from his death to philip the arab 244 249 was six years 3 213 nevertheless external expansion continued with trajan 98 117 invading dacia parthia and arabia 3 214 its only formidable enemy was the parthian empire 3 215 migrating peoples started exerting pressure on the borders of the empire in the migration period 3 218 the drying climate of central asia forced the huns to move and in 370 they crossed don and soon after the danube forcing the goths on the move which in turn caused other germanic tribes to overrun roman borders 3 244 245 in 293 diocletian 284 305 appointed three rulers for different parts of the empire 3 249 it was formally divided in 395 by theodosius i 379 395 into the western roman and byzantine empires 3 252 in 406 the northern border of the former was overrun by the alemanni vandals and suebi 3 253 in 408 the visigoths invaded italy and then sacked rome in 410 3 253 the final collapse of the western empire came in 476 with the deposal of romulus augustulus 475 476 3 254 indian subcontinent edit see also middle kingdoms of india built around the indus river by 3300 bce the indus valley civilization located in modern day india pakistan and afghanistan had formed the civilization s boundaries extended to 600 km from the arabian sea 9 after its cities mohenjo daro and harappa were abandoned around 1900 bce no political power is known to have replaced it 3 page needed states began to form in 12th century bce with the formation of kuru kingdom which was first state level administration in indian subcontinent in 6th century bce with the emergence of mahajanapadas 3 82 out of sixteen such states four strong ones emerged kosala magadha vatsa and avanti with magadha dominating the rest by the mid fifth century 3 115 the magadha then transformed into the nanda empire under mahapadma nanda 345 321 bce extending from the gangetic plains to the hindu kush and the deccan plateau 3 153 the empire was however overtaken by chandragupta maurya 324 298 bce turning it into the maurya empire 3 153 he defended against alexander s invasion from the west and received control of the hindu kush mountain passes in a peace treaty signed in 303 bce 3 153 by the time of his grandson ashoka s rule the empire stretched from zagros mountains to the brahmaputra river 3 154 the empire contained a population of 50 to 60 million governed by a system of provinces ruled by governor princes with a capital in pataliputra 3 155 after ashoka s death the empire had begun to decline with kashmir in the north shunga and satavahana in the centre and kalinga as well as pandya in the south becoming independent 3 183 in to this power vacuum the yuezhi were able to establish the new kus...
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