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enu main menu move to sidebar hide navigation main page contents current events random article about wikipedia contact us contribute help learn to edit community portal recent changes upload file special pages search search appearance donate create account log in personal tools donate create account log in contents move to sidebar hide top 1 borrowing toggle borrowing subsection 1 1 borrowing of vocabulary items 1 2 borrowing of other language features 2 direction of influence toggle direction of influence subsection 2 1 linguistic hegemony 2 2 non mutual influence 2 3 mutual influence 3 outcomes of language contact toggle outcomes of language contact subsection 3 1 language shift 3 2 stratal influence 3 3 creation of new languages creolization and mixed languages 3 4 dialectal and sub cultural change 4 sign languages toggle sign languages subsection 4 1 contact between sign languages 4 2 contact between sign languages and oral languages 5 see also 6 references toggle references subsection 6 1 notes 6 2 general references toggle the table of contents language contact 28 languages afrikaans العربية català dansk deutsch español eesti français हिन्दी magyar bahasa indonesia italiano 日本語 jawa қазақша 한국어 кыргызча nederlands ਪੰਜਾਬੀ polski português romani čhib română русский svenska українська 粵語 中文 edit links article talk english read edit view history tools tools move to sidebar hide actions read edit view history general what links here related changes upload file permanent link page information cite this page get shortened url switch to legacy parser print export download as pdf printable version in other projects wikimedia commons wikidata item appearance move to sidebar hide from wikipedia the free encyclopedia interaction between different languages not to be confused with contact language this article is written like a research paper or a scientific journal please help rewrite it in a neutral encyclopedic style and simplify overly technical phrases may 2025 language contact occurs when speakers of two or more languages or linguistic varieties interact with and influence each other the study of language contact is called contact linguistics language contact can occur at language borders 1 between adstratum languages or as the result of migration with an intrusive language acting as either a superstratum or a substratum when speakers of different languages interact closely it is typical for their languages to influence each other intensive language contact may result in language convergence or relexification in some cases a new contact language may be created as a result of the influence such as a pidgin creole or mixed language in many other cases contact between speakers occurs with smaller scale lasting effects on the language these may include the borrowing of loanwords calques or other types of linguistic material multilingualism has been common throughout much of human history and today most people in the world are multilingual 2 multilingual speakers may engage in code switching the use of multiple languages in a single conversation methods from sociolinguistics 3 the study of language use in society from corpus linguistics and from formal linguistics are used in the study of language contact borrowing edit main article borrowing linguistics borrowing of vocabulary items edit main article loanword the most common way that languages influence each other is the exchange of words much is made about the contemporary borrowing of english words into other languages but this phenomenon is not new and it is not very large by historical standards the large scale importation of words from latin french and other languages into english in the 16th and the 17th centuries was more significant some languages have borrowed so much that they have become scarcely recognisable armenian borrowed so many words from iranian languages for example that it was at first considered a divergent branch of the indo iranian languages and was not recognised as an independent branch of the indo european languages for many decades 4 5 borrowing of other language features edit the influence can go deeper extending to the exchange of even basic characteristics of a language such as morphology and grammar newar for example spoken in nepal is a sino tibetan language distantly related to chinese but has had so many centuries of contact with neighbouring indo iranian languages that it has developed noun inflection a trait that is typical of the indo european family but rare in sino tibetan newar has also absorbed grammatical features like verb tenses also romanian was influenced by the slavic languages that were spoken by neighbouring tribes in the centuries after the fall of the roman empire not only in vocabulary but also phonology citation needed english has a few phrases adapted from french in which the adjective follows the noun court martial attorney general lake superior citation needed direction of influence edit linguistic hegemony edit a language s influence widens as its speakers grow in power chinese greek latin portuguese french spanish arabic persian sanskrit russian german and english have each seen periods of widespread importance and have had varying degrees of influence on the native languages spoken in the areas over which they have held sway especially since the 1990s the internet along with previous influences such as radio and television telephone communication and printed materials 6 has expanded and changed the many ways in which languages can be influenced by each other and by technology non mutual influence edit change as a result of contact is often one sided chinese for instance has had a profound effect on the development of japanese but chinese remains relatively free of japanese influence other than some modern terms that were reborrowed after they were coined in japan and based on chinese forms and using chinese characters in india hindi and other native languages have been influenced by english and loanwords from english are part of everyday vocabulary mutual influence edit in some cases language contact may lead to mutual exchange but that may be confined to a particular geographic region for example in switzerland the local french has been influenced by german and vice versa in scotland scots has been heavily influenced by english and many scots terms have been adopted into the regional english dialect outcomes of language contact edit language shift edit main article language shift the result of the contact of two languages can be the replacement of one by the other this is most common when one language has a higher social position prestige this sometimes leads to language endangerment or extinction stratal influence edit main article stratum linguistics when language shift occurs the language that is replaced known as the substratum can leave a profound impression on the replacing language known as the superstratum when people retain features of the substratum as they learn the new language and pass these features on to their children which leads to the development of a new variety for example the latin that came to replace local languages in present day france during ancient rome times was influenced by gaulish and germanic the distinct pronunciation of the hiberno english dialect spoken in ireland comes partially from the influence of the substratum of irish outside the indo european family coptic the last stage of ancient egyptian is a substratum of egyptian arabic creation of new languages creolization and mixed languages edit main articles pidgin mixed language and creole language language contact can also lead to the development of new languages when people without a common language interact closely resulting from this contact a pidgin may develop which may eventually become a full fledged creole language through the process of creolization though some linguists assert that a creole need not emerge from a pidgin prime examples of this are aukan and saramaccan spoken in suriname which have vocabulary mainly from portuguese english and dutch a much rarer but still observed process according to some linguists is the formation of mixed languages whereas creoles are formed by communities lacking a common language mixed languages are formed by communities fluent in both languages they tend to inherit much more of the complexity grammatical phonological etc of their parent languages whereas creoles begin as simple languages and then develop in complexity more independently it is sometimes explained as bilingual communities that no longer identify with the cultures of either of the languages they speak and seek to develop their own language as an expression of their own cultural uniqueness dialectal and sub cultural change edit some forms of language contact affect only a particular segment of a speech community consequently change may be manifested only in particular dialects jargons or registers south african english for example has been significantly affected by afrikaans in terms of lexis and pronunciation but the other dialects of english have remained almost totally unaffected by afrikaans other than a few loanwords citation needed in some cases a language develops an acrolect that contains elements of a more prestigious language for example in england during a large part of the middle ages upper class speech was dramatically influenced by norman to the point that it often resembled a dialect citation needed the broader study of contact varieties within a society is called linguistic ecology 7 sign languages edit main article contact sign contact between sign languages edit language contact can take place between two or more sign languages and the expected contact phenomena occur lexical borrowing foreign accent interference code switching pidgins creoles and mixed systems contact between sign languages and oral languages edit language contact is extremely common in most deaf communities which are almost always located within a dominant oral language culture however between a sign language and an oral language even if lexical borrowing and code switching also occur the interface between the oral and signed modes produces unique phenomena fingerspelling fingerspelling sign combination initialisation coda talk tdd conversation mouthing and contact signing see also edit areal feature calque code switching creole language diffusion language island language transfer lexical gap lingua franca linguistic anthropology loanword metatypy mixed language nahuatl spanish contact phono semantic matching pidgin post creole speech continuum sprachbund trading zones metaphor metaphor applied to collaborations in science references edit notes edit hadzibeganovic tarik stauffer dietrich schulze christian 2008 boundary effects in a three state modified voter model for languages physica a statistical mechanics and its applications 387 13 3242 3252 cal digests a global perspective on bilingualism and bilingual education archived from the original on 2012 08 22 retrieved 2012 05 16 a global perspective on bilingualism and bilingual education 1999 g richard tucker carnegie mellon university gooden shelome language contact in a sociolinguistics context in the routledge companion to the work of john r rickford 2019 waterman john 1976 a history of the german language university of washington press p 4 robin meyer 2024 iranian syntax in classical armenian the armenian perfect and other cases of pattern replication oxford university press isbn 9780191885839 nazaryan ani gridchin aleksandr 2006 the influence of internet on language and email stress pdf facta universitatis law and politics 4 1 university of niš serbia 23 27 archived pdf from the original on march 7 2012 retrieved december 18 2013 the internet in conjunction with radio and television telephone communication and printed materials creates the universal information net which is called cyberspace see for example mufwene salikoko s the ecology of language evolution cambridge university press 2001 general references edit hickey raymond ed the handbook of language contact malden ma wiley blackwell 2010 sarah thomason and terrence kaufman language contact creolization and genetic linguistics university of california press 1988 sarah thomason language contact an introduction edinburgh university press 2001 uriel weinreich languages in contact mouton 1963 donald winford an introduction to contact linguistics blackwell 2002 isbn 0 631 21251 5 ghil ad zuckermann language contact and lexical enrichment in israeli hebrew palgrave macmillan 2003 isbn 1 4039 1723 x van gijn r ruch h wahlström m hasse a 2023 van gijn r ruch h wahlström m hasse a eds language contact bridging the gap between individual interactions and areal patterns pdf berlin language science press doi 10 5281 zenodo 8269092 isbn 9783961104208 v t e linguistic influence donor languages arabic gujarati spanish english hindi urdu bengali tamil french english german persian languages of the indian subcontinent azeri bengali chagatai gujarati kashmiri ottoman turkish punjabi urdu polish russian sanskrit sanskritization bengali hindi indonesian kannada khmer malay malayalam marathi nepali odia tagalog telugu thai lao spanish languages of the philippines tagalog influenced languages english french latin spanish spanish arabic languages of the philippines native american languages tagalog arabic cebuano english hokkien japanese malay persian sanskrit spanish tamil v t e language influence general anglicism pseudo anglicism arabism gallicism interlanguage macaronic language list russianism germanism language contact borrowings englishisation finnish french japanese german italian polish spanish russian pindgins creoles german gastarbeiterdeutsch kiautschou namibian black german unserdeutsch wede english spanglish yinglish yiddish in english english words of yiddish origin also interlanguage varieties linguistic influence authority control databases international gnd national united states japan czech republic latvia israel other yale lux retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title language_contact oldid 1370333395 category language contact hidden categories articles with short description short description is different from wikidata wikipedia articles with style issues from may 2025 all articles with style issues all articles with unsourced statements articles with unsourced statements from august 2010 articles with unsourced statements from july 2021 articles with unsourced statements from april 2025 this page was last edited on 20 august 2026 at 14 38 utc page was rendered with parsoid text is available under the creative commons attribution sharealike 4 0 license additional terms may apply by using this site you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy wikipedia is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation inc a non profit organization privacy policy about 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