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his former appearance like other females had robles carried on with his life as amelio and remained to look as well as act masculine he reestablished himself into the community as a male and was recognized as a male on his military documents 130 interpreting the history of the revolution edit there is a vast historiography on the mexican revolution with many different interpretations of the history over time it has become more fragmented there is consensus as to when the revolution began that is in 1910 but there is no consensus when it ended the constitutionalists defeated their major rivals and called the constitutional convention that drafted the 1917 constitution but did not effectively control all regions the year 1920 was the last successful military rebellion bringing the northern revolutionary generals to power according to álvaro matute by the time obregón was sworn in as president on december 1 1920 the armed stage of the mexican revolution was effectively over 202 the year 1940 saw revolutionary general and president lázaro cárdenas choose manuel avila camacho a moderate to succeed him a 1966 anthology by scholars of the revolution was entitled is the mexican revolution dead 203 historian alan knight has identified orthodox interpretation of the revolution as a monolithic popular nationalist revolution while revisionism has focused on regional differences and challenges its credentials revolution 204 one scholar classifies the conflict as a great rebellion rather than a revolution 205 major leaders of the revolution have been the subject of biographies including the martyred francisco i madero there are many biographies of zapata and villa whose movements did not achieve power along with studies of the presidential career of revolutionary general lázaro cárdenas in recent years biographies of the victorious northerners carranza obregón and calles have reassessed their roles in the revolution sonorans in the mexican revolution have not yet collectively been the subject of a major study often studied as an event solely of mexican history or one also involving mexico s northern neighbor scholars now recognize that from the beginning to the end foreign activities figured crucially in the revolution s course not simple antagonism from the u s government but complicated euro american imperialist rivalries extremely intricate during the first world war 206 a key work illuminating the international aspects of the revolution is friedrich katz s 1981 work the secret war in mexico europe the united states and the mexican revolution 25 historical memory edit the monument to the revolution in mexico city it was to be the new legislative palace of the díaz regime but construction was interrupted by the revolution in 2010 the centennial of the revolution and the bicentennial of independence was an occasion to take account of mexico s history the centennial of independence in 1910 had been the swan song of the porfiriato with president felipe calderón 2006 2012 of the conservative national action party there was considerable emphasis on the bicentennial of independence rather than on the mexican revolution heroes and villains edit equestrian bronze of villa in chihuahua chihuahua the popular heroes of the mexican revolution are the two radicals who lost emiliano zapata and pancho villa as early as 1921 the mexican government began appropriating the memory and legacy of zapata for its own purposes 207 pancho villa fought against those who won the revolution and he was excluded from the revolutionary pantheon for a considerable time but his memory and legend remained alive among the mexican people the government recognized his continued potency and had his remains reburied in the monument of the revolution after considerable controversy 208 with the exception of zapata who rebelled against him in 1911 francisco madero was revered as the apostle of democracy madero s murder in the 1913 counterrevolutionary coup elevated him as a martyr of the revolution whose memory unified the constitutionalist coalition against huerta venustiano carranza gained considerable legitimacy as a civilian leader of the constitutionalists having supported madero in life and led the successful coalition that ousted huerta then carranza downplayed madero s role in the revolution in order to substitute himself as the origin of the true revolution carranza owned the bullets taken from the body of francisco i madero after his murder carranza had kept them in his home perhaps because they were a symbol of a fate and a passive denouement he had always hoped to avoid 209 huerta remains the enduring villain of the mexican revolution for his coup against madero díaz is still popularly and officially reviled although there was an attempt to rehabilitate his reputation in the 1990s by president carlos salinas de gortari who was implementing the north american free trade agreement and amending the constitution to eliminate further land reform pascual orozco who with villa captured ciudad juárez in may 1911 continues to have an ambiguous status since he led a major rebellion against madero in 1912 and then threw his lot in with huerta orozco much more than madero was considered a manly man of action monuments edit the most permanent manifestations of history are in the built landscape especially the monument to the revolution in mexico city and statues and monuments to particular leaders the monument to the revolution was created from the partially built palacio legislativo a major project of díaz s government the construction was abandoned with the outbreak of the revolution in 1910 in 1933 during the maximato of plutarco elías calles the shell was re purposed to commemorate the revolution buried in the four pillars are the remains of francisco i madero venustiano carranza plutarco elías calles lázaro cárdenas and francisco pancho villa 210 in life villa fought carranza and calles but his remains were transferred to the monument in 1979 during the administration of president josé lópez portillo 211 prior to the construction of that monument one was built in 1935 to the amputated arm of general álvaro obregón lost in victorious battle against villa in the 1915 battle of celaya the monument is on the site of the restaurant la bombilla where he was assassinated in 1928 the arm was cremated in 1989 but the monument remains 212 213 naming edit metro zapata in mexico city the icon shows a stylized eyeless zapata names are a standard way governments commemorate people and events many towns and cities of mexico recall the revolution in mexico city there are delegaciones boroughs named for álvaro obregón venustiano carranza and gustavo a madero brother of murdered president there is a portion of the old colonial street calle de los plateros leading to the main square zócalo of the capital named francisco i madero the mexico city metro has stations commemorating aspects of the revolution and the revolutionary era when it opened in 1969 with line 1 the pink line two stations alluded to the revolution most directly referencing the revolution was metro pino suárez named after francisco i madero s vice president who was murdered with him in february 1913 there is no metro stop named for madero the other was metro balderas whose icon is a cannon alluding to the ciudadela armory where the coup against madero was launched in 1970 metro revolución opened with the station at the monument to the revolution as the metro expanded further stations with names from the revolutionary era opened in 1980 two popular heroes of the revolution were honored with metro zapata explicitly commemorating the peasant revolutionary from morelos a sideways commemoration was metro división del norte named after the army that pancho villa commanded until its demise in the battle of celaya in 1915 the year 1997 saw the opening of the metro lázaro cárdenas station in 1988 metro aquiles serdán honors the first martyr of the revolution aquiles serdán in 1994 metro constitución de 1917 opened as did metro garibaldi named after the grandson of italian fighter for independence giuseppi garibaldi the grandson had been a participant in the mexican revolution in 1999 the radical anarchist ricardo flores magón was honored with the metro ricardo flores magón station also opening in 1999 was metro romero rubio named after the leader of porfirio díaz s científicos whose daughter carmen romero rubio became díaz s second wife 214 in 2012 a new metro line opened with a metro hospital 20 de noviembre stop a hospital named after the date that madero set in 1910 for rebellion against díaz there are no metro stops named for revolutionary generals and presidents of mexico carranza obregón or calles and only an oblique reference to villa in metro división del norte role of women edit adelita in the historical museum of the mexican revolution the role of women in the mexican revolution has not been an important aspect of official historical memory although the situation is changing carranza pushed for the rights of women and gained women s support during his presidency he relied on his personal secretary and close aide hermila galindo de topete to rally and secure support for him through her efforts he was able to gain the support of women workers and peasants carranza rewarded her efforts by lobbying for women s equality he helped change and reform the legal status of women in mexico 215 in the historical museum of the mexican revolution there is a recreation of adelita the idealized female revolutionary combatant or soldadera the typical image of a soldadera is of a woman with braids wearing female attire with ammunition belts across her chest there were a few revolutionary women known as coronelas who commanded troops some of whom dressed and identified as male they do not fit the stereotypical image of soldadera and are not celebrated in historical memory at present 216 legacies edit strong central government civilian subordination of military edit although the ignominious end of venustiano carranza s presidency in 1920 cast a shadow over his legacy in the revolution sometimes viewed as a conservative revolutionary he and his northern allies laid the foundation of a more ambitious centralizing state dedicated to national integration and national self assertion 107 in the assessment of historian alan knight a victory of villa and zapata would probably have resulted in a weak fragmented state a collage of revolutionary fiefs of varied political hues presided over by a feeble central government 107 porfirio díaz had successfully centralized power during his long presidency carranza was an old politico of the díaz regime considered a kind of bridge between the old porfirian order and the new revolutionary 209 the northern generals seized power in 1920 with the sonoran hegemony prov ing complete and long lasting 217 the sonorans particularly álvaro obregón were battle tested leaders and pragmatic politicians able to consolidate centralized power immediately after 1920 the revolutionary struggle destroyed the professional army and brought to power men who joined the revolution as citizen soldiers once in power successive revolutionary generals holding the presidency obregón calles and cárdenas systematically downsized the army and instituted reforms to create a professionalized force subordinate to civilian politicians by 1940 the government had controlled the power of the revolutionary generals making the mexican military subordinate to the strong central government breaking the cycle of military intervention in politics dating to the independence era it is also in contrast to the pattern of military power in many latin american countries 10 218 constitution of 1917 edit main article constitution of mexico an important element of the revolution s legacy is the 1917 constitution the document brought numerous reforms demanded by populist factions of the revolution with article 27 empowering the state to expropriate resources deemed vital to the nation these powers included expropriation of hacienda lands and redistribution to peasants article 27 also empowered the government to expropriate holdings of foreign companies most prominently seen in the 1938 expropriation of oil in article 123 the constitution codified major labor reforms including an 8 hour workday a right to strike equal pay laws for women and an end to exploitative practices such as child labor and company stores the constitution strengthened restrictions on the catholic church in mexico which when enforced by the calles government resulted in the cristero war and a negotiated settlement of the conflict the restrictions on the religion in the constitution remained in place until the early 1990s the salinas government introduced reforms to the constitution that rolled back the government s power to expropriate property and its restrictions on religious institutions as part of his policy to join the u s and canada free trade agreement 219 just as the government of carlos salinas de gortari was amending significant provisions of the constitution metro constitución de 1917 station was opened institutional revolutionary party edit main article institutional revolutionary party logo of the institutional revolutionary party which incorporates the colors of the mexican flag the creation of the institutional revolutionary party pri emerged as a way to manage political power and succession without resorting to violence it was established in 1929 by president calles in the wake of the assassination of president elect obregón and two rebellions by disgruntled revolutionary generals with presidential ambitions initially calles remained the power behind the presidency during a period known as the maximato but his hand picked presidential candidate lázaro cárdenas won a power struggle with calles expelling him from the country cárdenas reorganized the party that calles founded creating formal sectors for interest groups including one for the mexican military the reorganized party was named party of the mexican revolution in 1946 the party again changed its name to the institutional revolutionary party the party under its various names held the presidency uninterruptedly from 1929 to 2000 and again from 2012 to 2018 under president enrique peña nieto in 1988 cuauhtémoc cárdenas son of president lázaro cárdenas broke with the pri forming an independent leftist party the party of the democratic revolution or prd it is not by chance that the party used the word revolution in its name challenging the institutional revolutionary party s appropriation of the mexican revolution the pri was built as a big tent corporatist party to bring many political factions and interest groups peasantry labor urban professionals together while excluding conservatives and catholics who eventually formed the opposition national action party in 1939 to incorporate the populace into the party presid...
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