Meta tags:

Headings (most frequently used words):

revolution, contents, etymology, definition, types, studies, of, see, also, references, further, reading, external, links, bibliography,

Text of the page (most frequently used words):
the (231), and (139), #revolution (112), revolutions (70), political (46), social (31), that (31), from (24), state (22), for (22), doi (21), revolutionary (18), isbn (17), change (17), such (16), history (15), generation (15), politics (14), society (14), press (14), their (14), page (13), theory (13), theories (13), edit (13), with (12), power (12), s2cid (12), they (12), university (11), not (11), also (11), have (11), was (10), way (10), issn (10), studies (10), new (10), 978 (10), 2022 (10), are (10), this (9), world (9), war (9), which (9), second (9), wikipedia (8), conflict (8), other (8), rights (8), century (8), class (8), levitsky (8), after (8), institutions (8), science (8), american (8), but (8), been (8), civil (8), regimes (8), may (7), french (7), comparative (7), states (7), communist (7), democracy (7), philosophy (7), third (7), regime (7), jstor (7), first (7), goldstone (7), jack (7), pdf (7), katz (7), economic (7), mass (7), needed (7), events (7), between (7), data (6), international (6), authority (6), 1992 (6), early (6), people (6), study (6), mark (6), 1017 (6), system (6), violent (6), gunitsky (6), great (6), democratic (6), china (6), russian (6), 1979 (6), 1917 (6), including (6), can (6), articles (5), retrieved (5), republic (5), its (5), revolt (5), government (5), more (5), original (5), links (5), 2307 (5), princeton (5), 1997 (5), jeff (5), changes (5), see (5), europe (5), were (5), during (5), tend (5), when (5), structures (5), some (5), scholars (5), enough (5), bourgeois (5), definition (5), contents (4), search (4), view (4), about (4), terms (4), categories (4), france (4), violence (4), right (4), related (4), liberty (4), 1848 (4), law (4), two (4), bce (4), tocqueville (4), james (4), modern (4), common (4), global (4), books (4), sociology (4), come (4), 2018 (4), 1177 (4), sociological (4), transformation (4), further (4), cambridge (4), fall (4), 2019 (4), long (4), archived (4), february (4), colgan (4), journal (4), movements (4), iran (4), charles (4), recent (4), types (4), fourth (4), etymology (4), into (4), skocpol (4), most (4), 1989 (4), group (4), military (4), 1789 (4), one (4), tools (4), approach (4), while (4), formal (4), informal (4), constraints (4), cultural (4), polity (4), series (4), account (4), set (4), literature (4), conflicts (4), struggle (4), nonviolent (4), rapid (4), through (4), what (4), main (4), anti (4), coup (4), mobilization (4), english (4), hide (4), move (4), sidebar (4), toggle (3), text (3), use (3), last (3), 2026 (3), language (3), 2024 (3), justice (3), elite (3), 1996 (3), order (3), end (3), man (3), 1945 (3), masses (3), monarchy (3), sun (3), mansfield (3), lenin (3), fukuyama (3), arendt (3), 20th (3), centuries (3), bon (3), powers (3), nationalism (3), liberalism (3), fascism (3), communism (3), autocracy (3), peace (3), free (3), portal (3), 1991 (3), york (3), generations (3), made (3), encyclopedia (3), review (3), structure (3), rebellion (3), durable (3), waves (3), seva (3), times (3), north (3), 2016 (3), development (3), 2012 (3), edward (3), why (3), brinton (3), 2001 (3), goodwin (3), six (3), tilly (3), 1086 (3), current (3), definitions (3), sense (3), references (3), movement (3), wave (3), warfare (3), rebellions (3), peaceful (3), leader (3), chinese (3), xinhai (3), according (3), three (3), large (3), scale (3), process (3), only (3), critical (3), slow (3), equilibrium (3), based (3), notable (3), transform (3), has (3), beyond (3), identified (3), country (3), could (3), well (3), began (3), work (3), started (3), old (3), explain (3), nicaraguan (3), iranian (3), others (3), rural (3), transformations (3), limited (3), four (3), theorists (3), competing (3), interest (3), groups (3), followed (3), these (3), psychology (3), article (3), pro (3), take (3), typologies (3), often (3), countries (3), industrial (3), proletarian (3), islamic (3), urban (3), état (3), steam (3), engine (3), all (3), actions (3), fundamental (3), arab (3), spring (3), independence (3), german (3), spanish (3), human (3), 111 (2), languages (2), table (2), contact (2), privacy (2), policy (2), under (2), wikimedia (2), commons (2), september (2), containing (2), polish (2), sources (2), number (2), latin (2), short (2), description (2), wikidata (2), concepts (2), spain (2), national (2), control (2), category (2), totalitarianism (2), separation (2), religion (2), wing (2), justification (2), institutional (2), discrimination (2), egalitarianism (2), authoritarianism (2), clash (2), civilizations (2), origins (2), open (2), road (2), america (2), elements (2), 1791 (2), contract (2), 1642 (2), confucius (2), mao (2), kropotkin (2), huntington (2), fisher (2), berlin (2), play (2), period (2), thucydides (2), tyranny (2), nature (2), negative (2), monopoly (2), model (2), body (2), socialism (2), republicanism (2), marxism (2), christian (2), capitalism (2), ideologies (2), dictatorship (2), ruling (2), nation (2), wikiquote (2), dictionary (2), external (2), david (2), december (2), 2600949 (2), patterns (2), decolonization (2), 1500 (2), basic (2), age (2), who (2), protest (2), 1906 (2), peter (2), historical (2), 187 (2), annual (2), beck (2), colin (2), 161 (2), 53669466 (2), 0735275118777004 (2), 134 (2), comparison (2), beissinger (2), city (2), penguin (2), hannah (2), 1975 (2), reading (2), reus (2), smit (2), 2013 (2), 521 (2), individual (2), making (2), steven (2), lucan (2), 2021 (2), cold (2), since (2), perspective (2), 2017 (2), 691 (2), getachew (2), rise (2), self (2), determination (2), bibliography (2), november (2), douglass (2), francisco (2), agency (2), performance (2), april (2), toward (2), thomassen (2), bjorn (2), snyder (2), 2007 (2), maoz (2), zeev (2), domestic (2), enterline (2), interstate (2), center (2), 1057 (2), s41599 (2), communications (2), 1938 (2), anatomy (2), crane (2), out (2), 2006 (2), information (2), 17th (2), grinin (2), 124 (2), sciences (2), 1926 (2), 1966 (2), 2009765 (2), 3338 (2), 201977 (2), 2010111 (2), iii (2), lists (2), meaning (2), had (2), established (2), 15th (2), counterrevolution (2), 2009694 (2), 139 (2), towards (2), theda (2), analysis (2), russia (2), passive (2), list (2), sudden (2), autumn (2), nations (2), siamese (2), 1911 (2), bolshevik (2), july (2), governments (2), academics (2), came (2), lasting (2), autocracies (2), emerged (2), nonrevolutionary (2), rate (2), coups (2), protests (2), them (2), loyal (2), strong (2), independent (2), opposition (2), writings (2), moments (2), very (2), much (2), studied (2), within (2), would (2), behavior (2), below (2), where (2), levels (2), how (2), rhetoric (2), rules (2), thereby (2), down (2), typically (2), restructuring (2), both (2), directions (2), less (2), than (2), 2010s (2), like (2), degree (2), executive (2), competition (2), democratization (2), score (2), single (2), existing (2), employed (2), make (2), turned (2), research (2), causes (2), generally (2), those (2), significant (2), latter (2), contentious (2), phenomena (2), called (2), attention (2), course (2), structural (2), cases (2), involving (2), sufficient (2), around (2), late (2), asia (2), africa (2), saw (2), popular (2), demonstrations (2), strikes (2), criticism (2), writers (2), elites (2), book (2), accompanied (2), part (2), revolts (2), marxist (2), explanations (2), scope (2), failed (2), major (2), pattern (2), 1949 (2), then (2), variable (2), cognitive (2), magnitude (2), situation (2), riot (2), trigger (2), now (2), authorities (2), repression (2), outcomes (2), resources (2), force (2), various (2), etc (2), psychological (2), disequilibrium (2), agreed (2), feierbrand (2), link (2), cause (2), varied (2), frustration (2), usually (2), created (2), include (2), inspired (2), aim (2), denote (2), examples (2), central (2), leading (2), germany (2), several (2), above (2), top (2), differentiated (2), entire (2), seek (2), occurred (2), whether (2), religious (2), effort (2), noninstitutionalized (2), broad (2), wars (2), word (2), mid (2), cuban (2), 1923 (2), mexican (2), haitian (2), methods (2), counter (2), guerrilla (2), efforts (2), hungarian (2), resistance (2), action (2), permanent (2), here (2), disambiguation (2), appearance (2), upload (2), file (2), read (2), norsk (2), bahasa (2), беларуская (2), log (2), create (2), donate (2), menu (2), add, topic, mobile, cookie, statement, statistics, developers, code, conduct, legal, safety, contacts, disclaimers, available, additional, apply, using, site, you, agree, registered, trademark, non, profit, organization, foundation, inc, creative, attribution, sharealike, license, rendered, parsoid, edited, utc, hidden, cs1, needing, citations, dmy, dates, october, different, https, org, index, php, title, oldid, 1374602286, yale, lux, israel, czech, japan, bnf, united, gnd, databases, statism, separatism, atheism, church, secular, judaism, islam, christianity, centrism, left, spectrum, ethics, jurisprudence, thought, elitism, critique, economy, contractualism, collectivism, individualism, remaking, 1971, 1951, enemies, 1944, serfdom, 1929, 1859, manifesto, 1835, 1840, 1820, 1790, reflections, 1762, 1748, spirit, 1689, treatises, 1651, leviathan, patriarcha, 1532, prince, 1337, muqaddimah, 1313, 1274, treatise, 11th, siyasatnama, 335, 375, 475, analects, works, weber, walzer, voegelin, taylor, strauss, spengler, spann, sorel, shariati, scruton, schmitt, savarkar, sartre, russell, rothbard, röpke, rawls, rand, qutb, popper, pareto, ortega, oakeshott, nussbaum, nursi, nozick, negri, mouffe, mosca, mises, michels, maurras, marcuse, luxemburg, laclau, kirk, khomeini, kautsky, hoppe, hayek, habermas, guénon, gramsci, gentile, gandhi, fromm, foucault, fanon, evola, dworkin, dugin, bois, dmowski, chomsky, burnham, bernstein, benoist, bauman, badiou, aron, apo, ambedkar, agamben, 21st, voltaire, tucker, thoreau, taine, stirner, staël, spencer, smith, saint, simon, sade, rousseau, renan, proudhon, paine, owen, nietzsche, montesquieu, mill, mazzini, marx, maistre, madison, kant, jefferson, iqbal, hume, herder, hegel, haller, godwin, franklin, fourier, fichte, engels, cortés, constant, condorcet, comte, carlyle, burke, bonald, bolingbroke, bentham, beccaria, bastiat, bakunin, afghani, 18th, 19th, suárez, spinoza, pufendorf, müntzer, milton, machiavelli, luther, locke, leibniz, hobbes, guicciardini, grotius, filmer, campanella, calvin, bossuet, bodin, boétie, wang, plethon, ockham, nizam, mulk, muhammad, marsilius, ibn, khaldun, ghazali, gelasius, dante, bruni, averroes, aquinas, farabi, middle, ages, xenophon, tzu, shang, polybius, plato, mozi, mencius, lactantius, han, fei, cicero, chanakya, aristotle, antiquity, philosophers, majority, supermajority, statolatry, overton, window, position, ordered, noblesse, oblige, noble, lie, night, watchman, positive, natural, family, divine, kings, consent, governed, good, politic, bellum, omnium, contra, omnes, balance, darwinism, populism, nazism, multiculturalism, monarchism, localism, libertarianism, islamism, imperialism, hindutva, feudalism, feminism, environmentalism, distributism, corporatism, conservatism, confucianism, communitarianism, colonialism, anarchism, agrarianism, theocracy, technocracy, plutocracy, meritocracy, gerontocracy, ochlocracy, bureaucracy, oligarchy, aristocracy, utopia, sovereignty, property, propaganda, progress, pluralism, obedience, legitimacy, hierarchy, hegemony, freedom, emancipation, duty, citizenship, quotations, look, wiktionary, strang, 454, 0020, 8833, 429, quarterly, 1987, perl, rosenthal, nathan, hardcover, 1393440385, oclc, 9781541603196, ness, immanuel, 2009, malden, 405, 18464, wiley, sons, present, london, swan, sonnenschein, memoirs, revolutionist, 1982, 207, 2945993, edelstein, dan, 2025, 9780691231853, idea, evolving, urbanization, 1963, edition, classics, summary, internet, 018421, 85777, cbo9781139046527, 0691169521, 312, 17322, martin, bartel, fritz, monteiro, nuno, eds, 243, 244851964, 108, 84334, 9781108910194, 014, 225, before, spread, 651, 149523316, 1537, 5927, s1537592718001044, 634, perspectives, 17233, aftershocks, adom, 17915, worldmaking, empire, 140, 13455, francis, max, 0362, 4331, odds, facing, protesters, san, ics, via, 558, 15211, transaction, costs, 706, june, 15806418, s0010417512000278, 679, anthropology, sites, google, com, measuring, 467, 220675692, 0738, 8942, 0738894212449093, 444, management, mit, electing, fight, emerging, democracies, ann, arbor, michigan, 1998, neighborhoods, 1816, 829, 154877512, 0022, 0027, 0022002798042006006, 804, resolution, systemic, polityproject, leroi, armand, lambert, ben, mauch, matthias, papadopoulou, marina, ananiadou, sophia, lindberg, staffan, lindenfors, patrik, 2020, 10044, 74903, hdl, 019, 0371, palgrave, armstrong, stephen, desrosiers, marian, january, 66392, 003777212814728065, education, helping, students, analyze, 1965, revised, vintage, 0735, 2751, 415, 31800, 226, routledge, geographies, globalization, murray, warwick, fang, irving, 240, 80254, focal, communication, lewis, bernard, moshe, dayan, tel, aviv, 1995, 631, 19903, blackwell, publishing, european, 1492, topolski, 1976, rewolucje, dziejach, nowożytnych, najnowszych, xvii, wiek, 267, 251, lxxxiii, kwartalnik, historyczny, 7391, 1665, lexington, map, methodology, despotism, boesche, roger, leonid, anton, korotayev, andrey, 022, 01120, humanities, characteristics, yoder, dale, 441, 2765544, 0002, 9602, 214128, 433, billington, 473, 154688891, 452, views, kroeber, clifton, 144148530, 1353, jwh, 2005, 0056, 1993, revisited, foran, john, 1980, 453, 154287826, 425, 2011, concise, pipes, richard, online, vol, 617, usage, alteration, mutation, 1400, rare, 1450, lydg, 1196, elementys, revoluciuons, chaung, tymes, complexiouns, shows, did, until, secrees, oed, clarke, killian, 2023, 1360, 254907991, 0003, 0554, s0003055422001174, 1344, 117, stone, lawrence, 176, 154757362, 159, 1146, annurev, polisci, 22439, cbo9780511815805, user, subversion, reformism, wall, officers, officials, staged, 1932, khana, ratsadon, yat, sen, vladimir, george, washington, storming, bastille, stability, took, cuba, vietnam, among, showed, lasted, average, collapsed, fifth, systems, additionally, face, contestation, smaller, thwart, threats, emerge, cohesive, minimize, chances, defections, stay, turmoil, coercive, militaries, protect, status, lack, centers, allow, examined, anthropological, drawing, victor, turner, ritual, suggested, understood, liminal, resemble, rituals, therefore, imply, focus, recognition, high, low, relativized, subverted, irrelevant, micro, macro, fuse, together, conjunctions, economist, raised, note, caution, never, believe, laws, constitutions, changed, virtually, overnight, inertia, inheritance, quickly, societal, tension, resolved, overall, produce, far, argued, evaluates, autocratic, governing, openness, recruitment, inadequate, because, measures, doesn, fail, sufficiently, yield, difference, instead, offered, relationships, overthrowing, rejecting, principal, empirically, contributions, finding, likelihood, disputes, increasingly, quantitative, techniques, formulating, moved, case, statistical, assessing, implications, initial, relied, analyses, observed, women, labor, enrich, thus, developed, attempts, combine, insights, better, understand, greater, conscious, contingency, understanding, outcome, extended, heterogeneous, small, historians, traditional, paradigm, driven, centered, versus, discontented, longer, multi, coalitions, toppling, dictators, consequently, evolve, describes, 1980s, academic, questioning, dominance, dealt, blow, readily, 1986, diverse, topple, seemingly, powerful, amidst, philippines, led, put, forth, jeffrey, paige, expanding, agrarian, autonomous, impact, particular, landmark, defined, carried, she, attributed, conjunction, multiple, lower, classes, barrington, moore, subsequent, decades, classify, hundreds, expanded, notion, engendered, approaches, being, too, geographical, lacking, means, empirical, verification, capable, explaining, specific, adequately, occur, societies, experiencing, similar, circumstances, his, influential, historian, convention, choosing, outlined, uniformities, although, deviated, somewhat, result, later, substituted, continued, practice, focusing, thirteen, colonies, 1775, england, regarded, situations, step, arises, somehow, marks, break, previous, affects, resource, effect, potentially, occurs, once, point, reached, incident, bad, harvest, past, might, will, however, cognizant, danger, still, prevent, reform, path, looked, happen, cannot, normal, possess, required, employ, pursuit, goals, decision, pluralist, arthur, stinchcombe, ammann, samuel, composed, tiryakian, hagopian, drew, demands, subsystems, school, differed, severe, responsible, functionalist, talcott, parsons, hart, bob, jessop, neil, smelser, chalmers, johnson, ivo, rosalind, geschwender, denton, morrison, utilized, mind, exactly, incited, modernization, recession, primary, widespread, socio, aggression, schwartz, ted, robert, gurr, socioeconomic, many, particularly, differentiate, theoretical, subject, mainly, descriptive, sought, develop, detailed, frameworks, grounded, arise, divided, crowd, pitirim, sorokin, ellwood, gustave, dimension, typology, either, against, dictatorial, transition, necessary, decide, direction, achieve, desired, form, ideas, replace, abortive, able, secure, winning, temporary, victories, amassing, mobilizations, term, used, outside, sphere, labeled, recognized, culture, technology, rather, commonly, cited, fit, type, digital, commercial, scientific, rival, former, alliance, broken, 1960, yugoslavia, 1948, subordinate, puppet, aspiring, follow, role, nazi, ussr, mutually, exclusive, depose, czar, cross, classified, follows, osmosis, gradual, islamization, without, allied, invasions, 1943, italy, 1958, leap, forward, zedong, egypt, 1952, forms, transforms, seizure, poland, scholar, socialist, pre, capitalist, divides, relentless, involve, sweeping, bring, establish, overhaul, there, numerous, alexis, propelled, britain, pump, water, enabling, deepened, groundwater, coal, mines, madrid, watt, essentially, liberal, removing, creating, monarchical, excludes, transitions, death, demise, debated, distinction, questioned, purely, concerned, extensive, inclusive, affecting, aspects, life, familial, juntas, chile, argentina, franco, elections, plebiscite, justifications, undermine, encompass, ranging, same, time, exclude, afghanistan, relatively, toppled, defines, offers, any, instances, overthrown, transformed, irregular, extraconstitutional, fashion, narrow, entail, soon, noun, traces, back, 13th, equivalent, 14th, mean, revolving, motion, celestial, bodies, abrupt, recorded, 1688, familiar, replacement, termed, glorious, william, revolucion, 1765, 1783, 1799, 1804, 1808, 1826, 1910, 1920, 1927, 1885, 1947, 1950s, 1954, 1962, 1959, worldwide, algerian, indian, throughout, durations, periphery, insurrection, aimed, seizing, capital, rising, popularity, certain, moral, principles, models, governance, become, vulnerable, due, defeat, chaos, affront, pride, identity, persistent, halt, momentum, reverse, ongoing, exceptionally, corruption, peasant, uprisings, turn, ethnic, contain, core, draw, vision, visions, just, sociologist, revolutio, malagasy, nepali, bangladeshi, gen, sudanese, euromaidan, yemeni, egyptian, tunisian, kyrgyz, tulip, orange, rose, bulldozer, bolivarian, singing, romanian, velvet, yogurt, saur, carnation, rwandan, 1956, indonesian, guatemalan, august, young, turk, philippine, bulgarian, unification, eureka, italian, texas, belgian, 1830, 1820s, greek, serbian, liège, brabant, terror, tax, strike, samizdat, disobedience, mutiny, insurgency, direct, chain, demonstration, disorder, boycott, colour, characteristic, romantic, painting, example, liberté, guidant, peuple, eugène, delacroix, redirects, trotskyist, concept, uses, trotskyism, item, projects, printable, version, download, print, export, switch, legacy, parser, get, shortened, url, cite, general, talk, isizulu, 閩南語, bân, lâm, ייִדיש, მარგალური, walon, tiếng, việt, vèneto, oʻzbekcha, ўзбекча, اردو, українська, тыва, дыл, татарча, tatarça, türkçe, tagalog, ไทย, తెలుగు, தமிழ், kiswahili, svenska, српски

Text of the page (random words):
ilization and regime change but also more or less rapid and fundamental social economic or cultural change during or soon after the struggle for state power 13 jack goldstone defines a revolution revolution is an effort to transform the political institutions and the justifications for political authority in society accompanied by formal or informal mass mobilization and noninstitutionalized actions that undermine authorities this definition is broad enough to encompass events ranging from the relatively peaceful revolutions that toppled communist regimes to the violent islamic revolution in afghanistan at the same time this definition is strong enough to exclude coups revolts civil wars and rebellions that make no effort to transform institutions or the justification for authority 2 goldstone s definition excludes peaceful transitions to democracy through plebiscite or free elections as occurred in spain after the death of francisco franco or in argentina and chile after the demise of their military juntas 2 early scholars often debated the distinction between revolution and civil war 3 14 they also questioned whether a revolution is purely political i e concerned with the restructuring of government or whether it is an extensive and inclusive social change affecting all the various aspects of the life of a society including the economic religious industrial and familial as well as the political 15 types edit the revolutions of 1848 were essentially bourgeois revolutions and democratic and liberal in nature with the aim of removing the old monarchical structures and creating independent nation states a watt steam engine in madrid the development of the steam engine propelled the industrial revolution in britain and the world the steam engine was created to pump water from coal mines enabling them to be deepened beyond groundwater levels there are numerous typologies of revolution in the social science literature 16 alexis de tocqueville differentiated between sudden and violent revolutions that seek not only to establish a new political system but to overhaul an entire society and slow and relentless revolutions that involve sweeping transformations of the entire society and may take several generations to bring about such as changes in religion 17 one of the marxist typologies divides revolutions into pre capitalist early bourgeois bourgeois bourgeois democratic early proletarian socialist 18 charles tilly a modern scholar of revolutions differentiated between coup d état a top down seizure of power e g poland 1926 civil war revolt and great revolution a revolution that transforms economic and social structures as well as political institutions such as the french revolution of 1789 russian revolution of 1917 or islamic revolution of iran in 1979 19 20 mark katz identified six forms of revolution rural revolution urban revolution coup d état e g egypt 1952 revolution from above e g mao zedong s great leap forward of 1958 revolution from without e g the allied invasions of italy in 1943 and of germany in 1945 revolution by osmosis e g the gradual islamization of several countries 21 these categories are not mutually exclusive the russian revolution of 1917 began with an urban revolution to depose the czar followed by a rural revolution followed by the bolshevik coup in november katz also cross classified revolutions as follows central countries usually great powers which play a leading role in a revolutionary wave e g the ussr nazi germany islamic republic of iran 22 aspiring revolutions which follow the central revolution subordinate or puppet revolutions rival revolutions in which a former alliance is broken such as yugoslavia after 1948 and china after 1960 a further dimension to katz s typology is that revolutions are either against anti monarchy anti dictatorial anti communist anti democratic or for pro fascism pro communism pro nationalism etc in the latter cases a transition period is generally necessary to decide which direction to take to achieve the desired form of government 23 other types of revolution created for other typologies include proletarian or communist revolutions inspired by the ideas of marxism that aim to replace capitalism with communism failed or abortive revolutions that are not able to secure power after winning temporary victories or amassing large scale mobilizations or violent vs nonviolent revolutions the term revolution has also been used to denote great changes outside the political sphere such revolutions often labeled social revolutions are recognized as major transformations in a society s culture philosophy or technology rather than in its political system 24 some social revolutions are global in scope while others are limited to single countries commonly cited examples of social revolution are the industrial revolution scientific revolution commercial revolution and digital revolution these revolutions also fit the slow revolution type identified by tocqueville 25 studies of revolution edit main article social revolution political and socioeconomic revolutions have been studied in many social sciences particularly sociology political science and history 26 scholars of revolution differentiate four generations of theoretical research on the subject of revolution 2 27 theorists of the first generation including gustave le bon charles a ellwood and pitirim sorokin were mainly descriptive in their approach and their explanations of the phenomena of revolutions were usually related to social psychology such as le bon s crowd psychology theory 10 the second generation sought to develop detailed frameworks grounded in social behavior theory to explain why and when revolutions arise their work can be divided into three categories psychological sociological and political 10 the writings of ted robert gurr ivo k feierbrand rosalind l feierbrand james a geschwender david c schwartz and denton e morrison fall into the first category they utilized theories of cognitive psychology and frustration aggression theory to link the cause of revolution to the state of mind of the masses while these theorists varied in their approach as to what exactly incited the people to revolt e g modernization recession or discrimination they agreed that the primary cause for revolution was a widespread frustration with the socio political situation 10 the second group composed of academics such as chalmers johnson neil smelser bob jessop mark hart edward a tiryakian and mark hagopian drew on the work of talcott parsons and the structural functionalist theory in sociology they saw society as a system in equilibrium between various resources demands and subsystems political cultural etc as in the psychological school they differed in their definitions of what causes disequilibrium but agreed that it is a state of severe disequilibrium that is responsible for revolutions 10 the third group including writers such as charles tilly samuel p huntington peter ammann and arthur l stinchcombe followed a political science path and looked at pluralist theory and interest group conflict theory those theories view events as outcomes of a power struggle between competing interest groups in such a model revolutions happen when two or more groups cannot come to terms within the current political system s normal decision making process and when they possess the required resources to employ force in pursuit of their goals 10 the second generation theorists regarded the development of revolutionary situations as a two step process first a pattern of events arises that somehow marks a break or change from previous patterns this change then affects some critical variable the cognitive state of the masses the equilibrium of the system or the magnitude of conflict and resource control of competing interest groups if the effect on the critical variable is of sufficient magnitude a potentially revolutionary situation occurs 10 once this point is reached a negative incident a war a riot a bad harvest that in the past might not have been enough to trigger a revolt will now be enough however if authorities are cognizant of the danger they can still prevent revolution through reform or repression 10 in his influential 1938 book the anatomy of revolution historian crane brinton established a convention by choosing four major political revolutions england 1642 thirteen colonies of america 1775 france 1789 and russia 1917 for comparative study 28 he outlined what he called their uniformities although the american revolution deviated somewhat from the pattern 29 as a result most later comparative studies of revolution substituted china 1949 in their lists but they continued brinton s practice of focusing on four 2 in subsequent decades scholars began to classify hundreds of other events as revolutions see list of revolutions and rebellions their expanded notion of revolution engendered new approaches and explanations the theories of the second generation came under criticism for being too limited in geographical scope and for lacking a means of empirical verification also while second generation theories may have been capable of explaining a specific revolution they could not adequately explain why revolutions failed to occur in other societies experiencing very similar circumstances 2 the criticism of the second generation led to the rise of a third generation of theories put forth by writers such as theda skocpol barrington moore jeffrey paige and others expanding on the old marxist class conflict approach they turned their attention to rural agrarian state conflicts state conflicts with autonomous elites and the impact of interstate economic and military competition on domestic political change 2 in particular skocpol s states and social revolutions 1979 was a landmark book of the third generation skocpol defined revolution as rapid basic transformations of society s state and class structures accompanied and in part carried through by class based revolts from below and she attributed revolutions to a conjunction of multiple conflicts involving state elites and the lower classes 1 in the late 1980s a new body of academic work started questioning the dominance of the third generation s theories the old theories were also dealt a significant blow by a series of revolutionary events that they could not readily explain the iranian and nicaraguan revolutions of 1979 the 1986 people power revolution in the philippines and the 1989 autumn of nations in europe asia and africa saw diverse opposition movements topple seemingly powerful regimes amidst popular demonstrations and mass strikes in nonviolent revolutions 11 2 for some historians the traditional paradigm of revolutions as class struggle driven conflicts centered in europe and involving a violent state versus its discontented people was no longer sufficient to account for the multi class coalitions toppling dictators around the world consequently the study of revolutions began to evolve in three directions as goldstone describes it scholars of revolution extended the third generation s structural theories to a more heterogeneous set of cases well beyond the small number of great social revolutions 2 called for greater attention to conscious agency and contingency in understanding the course and outcome of revolutions observed how studies of social movements for women s rights labor rights and u s civil rights had much in common with studies of revolution and could enrich the latter thus a new literature on contentious politics has developed that attempts to combine insights from the literature on social movements and revolutions to better understand both phenomena 2 the fourth generation increasingly turned to quantitative techniques when formulating its theories political science research moved beyond individual or comparative case studies towards large n statistical analysis assessing the causes and implications of revolution 30 the initial fourth generation books and journal articles generally relied on the polity data series on democratization 31 such analyses like those by a j enterline 32 zeev maoz 33 and edward d mansfield and jack snyder 34 page needed identified a revolution by a significant change in the country s score on polity s autocracy to democracy scale since the 2010s scholars like jeff colgan have argued that the polity data series which evaluates the degree of democratic or autocratic authority in a state s governing institutions based on the openness of executive recruitment constraints on executive authority and political competition is inadequate because it measures democratization not revolution and doesn t account for regimes which come to power by revolution but fail to change the structure of the state and society sufficiently to yield a notable difference in the polity score 35 instead colgan offered a new data set to single out governments that transform the existing social political and economic relationships of the state by overthrowing or rejecting the principal existing institutions of society 36 this data set has been employed to make empirically based contributions to the literature on revolution by finding links between revolution and the likelihood of international disputes revolutions have been further examined from an anthropological perspective drawing on victor turner s writings on ritual and performance bjorn thomassen suggested that revolutions can be understood as liminal moments modern political revolutions very much resemble rituals and can therefore be studied within a process approach 37 this would imply not only a focus on political behavior from below but also a recognition of moments where high and low are relativized subverted or made irrelevant and where the micro and macro levels fuse together in critical conjunctions economist douglass north raised a note of caution about revolutionary change how it is never as revolutionary as its rhetoric would have us believe 38 while the formal rules of laws and constitutions can be changed virtually overnight the informal constraints such as institutional inertia and cultural inheritance do not change quickly and thereby slow down the societal transformation according to north the tension between formal rules and informal constraints is typically resolved by some restructuring of the overall constraints in both directions to produce a new equilibrium that is far less revolutionary than the rhetoric 38 studies have been made on the stability of governments that took by revolution 39 according to academics steven levitsky and lucan way regimes that came to power during revolutions such as china cuba iran and vietnam tend to be among the most durable and long lasting 6 their studies showed that autocracies that emerged from revolutions lasted on average as long as three times as nonrevolutionary regimes and collapsed at a one fifth at the rate of nonrevolutionary systems 40 additionally revoluti...