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activity generally plays a major role in bonobo society being used as what some scientists perceive as a greeting a means of forming social bonds a means of conflict resolution and postconflict reconciliation 93 94 bonobos are the only non human animal to have been observed engaging in tongue kissing 95 bonobos and humans are the only primates to typically engage in face to face genital sex although a pair of western gorillas has also been photographed in this position 96 bonobos do not form permanent monogamous sexual relationships with individual partners they also do not seem to discriminate in their sexual behaviour by sex or age with the possible exception of abstaining from sexual activity between mothers and their adult sons when bonobos come upon a new food source or feeding ground the increased excitement will usually lead to communal sexual activity presumably decreasing tension and encouraging peaceful feeding 97 more often than the males female bonobos engage in mutual genital rubbing behaviour possibly to bond socially with each other thus forming a female nucleus of bonobo society the bonding among females enables them to dominate most of the males 97 adolescent females often leave their native community to join another community this migration mixes the bonobo gene pools providing genetic diversity sexual bonding with other females establishes these new females as members of the group bonobo clitorises are larger and more externalized than in most mammals 98 while the weight of a young adolescent female bonobo is maybe half that of a human teenager she has a clitoris that is three times bigger than the human equivalent and visible enough to waggle unmistakably as she walks 99 in scientific literature the female female behavior of bonobos pressing vulvas together is often referred to as genito genital gg rubbing 97 100 this sexual activity happens within the immediate female bonobo community and sometimes outside of it ethologist jonathan balcombe stated that female bonobos rub their clitorises together rapidly for ten to twenty seconds and this behaviour which may be repeated in rapid succession is usually accompanied by grinding shrieking and clitoral engorgement he added that it is estimated that they engage in this practice about once every two hours on average 98 as bonobos occasionally copulate face to face 101 evolutionary biologist marlene zuk has suggested that the position of the clitoris in bonobos and some other primates has evolved to maximize stimulation during sexual intercourse 98 the position of the clitoris may alternatively permit gg rubbings which has been hypothesized to function as a means for female bonobos to evaluate their intrasocial relationships 102 group of bonobos bonobo males engage in various forms of male male genital behavior 97 103 the most common form of male male mounting is similar to that of a heterosexual mounting one of the males sits passively on his back with the other male thrusting on him with the penises rubbing together because of both males erections 47 in another rarer form of genital rubbing two bonobo males hang from a tree limb face to face while penis fencing 97 104 this also may occur when two males rub their penises together while in face to face position another form of genital interaction rump rubbing often occurs to express reconciliation between two males after a conflict when they stand back to back and rub their scrotal sacs together but such behaviour also occurs outside agonistic contexts kitamura 1989 observed rump rump contacts between adult males following sexual solicitation behaviours similar to those between female bonobos prior to gg rubbing 105 takayoshi kano observed similar practices among bonobos in the natural habitat tongue kissing oral sex and genital massaging have also been recorded among male bonobos 106 47 wild females give birth for the first time at 13 or 14 years of age 107 bonobo reproductive rates are no higher than those of the common chimpanzee 97 however female bonobo oestrus periods are longer 108 during oestrus females undergo a swelling of the perineal tissue lasting 10 to 20 days the gestation period is on average 240 days postpartum amenorrhea absence of menstruation lasts less than one year and a female may resume external signs of oestrus within a year of giving birth though the female is probably not fertile at this point female bonobos carry and nurse their young for four years and give birth on average every 4 6 years 109 compared to common chimpanzees bonobo females resume the genital swelling cycle much sooner after giving birth enabling them to rejoin the sexual activities of their society also bonobo females which are sterile or too young to reproduce still engage in sexual activity mothers will help their sons get more matings from females in oestrus 68 adult male bonobos have sex with infants 110 although without penetration 111 adult females also have sex with infants but less frequently infants are not passive participants they quite often initiate contacts with both adult males and females as well as with peers 110 they have also been shown to be sexually active even in the absence of any stimulation or learning from adults 112 infanticide while well documented in chimpanzees is apparently absent in bonobo society 113 although infanticide has not been directly observed there have been documented cases of both female 114 and male 115 bonobos kidnapping infants sometimes resulting in infants dying from dehydration although male bonobos have not yet been seen to practice infanticide there is a documented incident in captivity involving a dominant female abducting an infant from a lower ranking female treating the infant roughly and denying it the chance to suckle during the kidnapping the infant s mother was clearly distressed and tried to retrieve her infant had the zookeepers not intervened the infant almost certainly would have died from dehydration this suggests female bonobos can have hostile rivalries with each other and a propensity to carry out infanticide 85 the highly sexual nature of bonobo society and the fact that there is little competition over mates means that many males and females are mating with each other in contrast to the one dominant male chimpanzee that fathers most of the offspring in a group 116 the strategy of bonobo females mating with many males may be a counterstrategy to infanticide because it confuses paternity if male bonobos cannot distinguish their own offspring from others the incentive for infanticide essentially disappears 113 this is a reproductive strategy that seems specific to bonobos infanticide is observed in all other great apes except orangutans 117 bonobos engage in sexual activity numerous times a day 118 it is unknown how the bonobo avoids simian immunodeficiency virus siv and its effects 119 peacefulness bonobo pan paniscus mother and infant at lola ya bonobo observations in the wild indicate that the males among the related common chimpanzee communities are hostile to males from outside the community parties of males patrol for the neighboring males that might be traveling alone and attack those single males often killing them 120 this does not appear to be the behaviour of bonobo males or females which seem to prefer sexual contact over violent confrontation with outsiders 94 while bonobos are more peaceful than chimpanzees it is not true that they are unaggressive 121 in the wild among males bonobos are more aggressive than chimpanzees having higher rates of aggressive acts about three times as much although male chimpanzees are more likely to be aggressive to a lethal degree than male bonobos which are more likely to engage in more frequent yet less intense squabbling there is also more female to male aggression with bonobos than there is with chimpanzees 122 54 female bonobos are also more aggressive than female chimpanzees in general both bonobos and chimpanzees exhibit physical aggression more than 100 times as often as humans do 121 grooming reinforcement of social links although referred to as peaceful bonobo aggression is not restricted to each other and humans have also been attacked by bonobos and suffered serious albeit non fatal injuries 115 bonobos are far less violent than chimpanzees though as lethal aggression is essentially nonexistent among bonobos while being not infrequent among chimpanzees 51 it has been hypothesized that bonobos are able to live a more peaceful lifestyle in part because of an abundance of nutritious vegetation in their natural habitat allowing them to travel and forage in large parties 123 recent studies show that there are significant brain differences between bonobos and chimpanzees bonobos have more grey matter volume in the right anterior insula right dorsal amygdala hypothalamus and right dorsomedial prefrontal cortex all of which are regions assumed to be vital for feeling empathy sensing distress in others and feeling anxiety 124 they also have a thick connection between the amygdala an important area that can spark aggression and the ventral anterior cingulate cortex which has been shown to help control impulses in humans 125 126 this thicker connection may make them better at regulating their emotional impulses and behavior 127 bonobo society is dominated by females and severing the lifelong alliance between mothers and their male offspring may make them vulnerable to female aggression 94 de waal has warned of the danger of romanticizing bonobos all animals are competitive by nature and cooperative only under specific circumstances and that when first writing about their behaviour i spoke of sex for peace precisely because bonobos had plenty of conflicts there would obviously be no need for peacemaking if they lived in perfect harmony 128 surbeck and hohmann showed in 2008 that bonobos sometimes do hunt monkey species five incidents were observed in a group of bonobos in salonga national park which seemed to reflect deliberate cooperative hunting on three occasions the hunt was successful and infant monkeys were captured and eaten 129 there is one inferred intraspecies killing in the wild 114 and a confirmed lethal attack in captivity 130 in both cases the attackers were female and the victims were male diet folivory bonobos use certain species for self medication the bonobo is an omnivorous frugivore 57 of its diet is fruit but this is supplemented with leaves honey eggs 131 meat from small vertebrates such as anomalures flying squirrels and duikers 132 and invertebrates 133 the truffle species hysterangium bonobo is eaten by bonobos 134 in some instances bonobos have been shown to consume lower order primates 129 some claim bonobos have also been known to practise cannibalism in captivity a claim disputed by others 135 136 however at least one confirmed report of cannibalism in the wild of a dead infant was described in 2008 137 138 a 2016 paper reported two more instances of infant cannibalism although it was not confirmed if infanticide was involved 139 cognitive comparisons to chimpanzees chimpanzee and bonobo males a comparison of chimpanzees and bonobos performance on various cognitive tests 140 in 2020 the first whole genome comparison between chimpanzees and bonobos was published and showed genomic aspects that may underlie or have resulted from their divergence and behavioural differences including selection for genes related to diet and hormones 141 a 2010 study found that female bonobos displayed a larger range of tool use behaviours than males a pattern previously described for chimpanzees but not for other great apes 142 this finding was affirmed by the results of another 2010 study which also found that bonobos were more skilled at solving tasks related to theory of mind or an understanding of social causality while chimpanzees were more skilled at tasks requiring the use of tools and an understanding of physical causality 140 bonobos have been found to be more risk averse compared to chimpanzees preferring immediate rather than delayed rewards when it comes to foraging bonobos also have a weaker spatial memory compared to chimpanzees with adult bonobos performing comparably to juvenile chimpanzees 116 similarity to humans bonobos are capable of passing the mirror recognition test for self awareness as are all great apes 143 144 they communicate primarily through vocal means although the meanings of their vocalizations are not currently known however most humans do understand their facial expressions 145 and some of their natural hand gestures such as their invitation to play the communication system of wild bonobos includes a characteristic that was earlier only known in humans bonobos use the same call to mean different things in different situations and the other bonobos have to take the context into account when determining the meaning 146 two bonobos at the great ape trust kanzi and panbanisha were taught how to communicate using a keyboard labeled with lexigrams geometric symbols and they could respond to spoken sentences kanzi s vocabulary consisted of more than 500 english words 147 and he had comprehension of around 3 000 spoken english words 148 kanzi is also known for learning by observing people trying to teach his mother kanzi started doing the tasks that his mother was taught just by watching some of which his mother had failed to learn some such as philosopher and bioethicist peter singer argue that these results qualify them for rights to survival and life rights which humans theoretically accord to all persons see great ape personhood in the 1990s kanzi was taught to make and use simple stone tools this resulted from a study undertaken by researchers kathy schick and nicholas toth and later gary garufi the researchers wanted to know if kanzi possessed the cognitive and biomechanical abilities required to make and use stone tools though kanzi was able to form flakes he did not create them in the same way as humans who hold the core in one hand and knap it with the other kanzi threw the cobble against a hard surface or against another cobble this allowed him to produce a larger force to initiate a fracture as opposed to knapping it in his hands 149 as in other great apes and humans third party affiliation toward the victim the affinitive contact made toward the recipient of an aggression by a group member other than the aggressor is present in bonobos 150 a 2013 study 151 found that both the affiliation spontaneously offered by a bystander to the victim and the affiliation requested by the victim solicited affiliation can reduce the probability of further aggression by group members on the victim this fact supporting the victim protection hypothesis yet only spontaneous affiliation reduced victim anxiety measured via self scratching rates thus suggesting not only that non solicited affiliation has a consolatory function but also that the spontaneous gesture more tha...