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how god s certain knowledge is compatible with the contingency of things scotus tries to defend the validity of christian theology against the attack of ancient philosophers the main argument is unpacked in lectura i 39 49 53 scotus argues that a necessary being god is able to have contingent knowledge and that although this knowledge is contingent it is not necessarily mutable and temporal by that very fact in lectura i 39 1 scotus asks whether god has determinate knowledge of things according to every aspect of their existence as according to being in the future he presents a counterview which claims that god cannot have determinate knowledge of the future to support this counterview he uses aristotle s de interpretatione ix in the following arguments scotus does not attempt to contradict aristotle he does not affirm or reject the ideas of aristotle the only issue he argues against is the proposition that god cannot have determinate knowledge of the future scotus appears to try to fully demonstrate that aristotle s text is not contradictory to the christian doctrine of god scotus argues that god wills with one single volition unica volitione whatever he wills god has one volition ad intra but this one volition can be related to many opposite things ad extra god can simultaneously will one thing at time 1 and the opposite thing at time 2 there are various possible interpretations of aristotle s de interpretatione ix for example john buridan ca 1300 1362 thought the scotistic contingency theory was an aristotelian view buridan s judgment is all the more possible because of at least four reasons 1 aristotle s de interpretatione ix 19a23 25 can be interpreted like the scotistic contingency theory 2 scotus himself does not refute aristotle s de interpretatione ix in lectura i 39 49 53 3 scotus rather tries to formulate his contingency theory with the help of other works of aristotle in lectura i 39 51 54 4 scotus introduces the diachronic feature of god s volition to his contingency theory as well as the synchronic feature 34 metaphysical argument for the existence of god edit duns scotus argued that it is better to construct a metaphysical argument for the existence of god rather than the more common physical argument from motion 35 favoured by aquinas 36 following aristotle 37 though the version in de primo principio is the most complete and final version the ordinatio proof is usually offered however the de primo version gives a wider understanding of the argument as well as scotus s metaphysical underpinnings for his argument for god s existence but the ordinatio version will be followed here briefly scotus begins his proof by explaining that there are two angles we must take in arguing for the existence of an actually infinite being first from the view of the relative properties of god and second from the absolute properties of god relative properties are those which are predicable of god in relation to creation absolute properties are those which belong to god whether or not he chose to create under the first heading of relative properties scotus argues for a triple primacy of efficiency finality and pre eminence from there he shows that one primacy implies the others and finally there can only be one nature that is the first efficient cause ultimate end and the most perfect nature from there the subtle doctor discusses the absolute properties of god the first being is intellectual and volitional and the intellect and will are identical with the essence of this supreme nature the first being is also infinite being while discussing the infinity of god scotus resurrects anselm s argument and responds to the criticism that anselm makes an illicit leap from concept to reality finally he gives a definite answer of yes to the question of whether there exists an actually infinite being the very next question of the ordinatio deals with the unicity of the nature thus proved to exist however the de primo principio version concludes with this argument the proof for the conclusion that some efficient cause is simply first such that neither can it be an effect nor can it by virtue of something other than itself cause an effect ordinatio i 2 43 38 runs like this something can be produced it is produced either by itself nothing or another not by nothing for nothing causes nothing not by itself for an effect never causes itself therefore by another call it a if a is first then we have reached the conclusion if a is not first but also an effect we return to 2 a is produced either by itself nothing or another from 3 and 4 we say another b the ascending series will either continue infinitely or we finally reach something which has nothing prior to it an infinite ascending series is impossible therefore etc scotus acknowledges two objections and deals with them accordingly first is that he begs the question in assuming a first in the series here he argues that while many admit an infinite regress in an accidentally ordered series of causes no philosopher admits infinite regress in an essentially ordered series scotus explains the differences between the two and offers proofs for the conclusion that an infinity of essentially ordered causes in a series is impossible 39 second it is objected that his proof is not really a demonstration since it begins with a contingent premise that something is produced is contingent and not necessary therefore the proof proceeds from a contingent and not a necessary premise scotus says that while that is true it is utterly manifest that things are produced or effected but in order to respond scotus makes a modal move and reworks the argument now he argues from the possibility of production it is possible that something can be produced is a necessary proposition from there he is able to conclude that it is possible that the first efficient cause exists and if it is possible that it exists then it does exist he asserts that the last claim will be proved later in the argument 40 in the lectura proof scotus argues the following way although beings different from god are actually contingent with respect to their factual existence nevertheless they are not with respect to their possible existence hence those entities which are called contingent with respect to their factual existence are necessary with respect to their possible existence for instance although there exists a man is contingent nevertheless it is possible that he exists is necessary because his existence does not include any contradiction therefore something different from god is possible is necessary because being is divided into the contingent and the necessary just as necessity belongs to a necessary being in virtue of its condition or its quiddity so possibility belongs to a possible being in virtue of its quiddity if the first argument is alternatively qualified with the notion of ontological possibility then we have necessary propositions as follows it is possible that there is something different from god it is not of itself because then it would not be the case that it were possible nor from nothing therefore it is possible that it is from something else either it is possible that the other agent acts by virtue of itself and not by virtue of something else not being from something else or it is not possible if so then it is possible that there is a first agent and if it is possible that it exists then it exists just as we have proved before if not and if there is no infinite regress then the argument at once comes to a standstill for more on this argument see especially authors duns scotus ordinatio ordinatio i d2 q2b 41 illuminationism edit scotus argued against the version of illuminationism that had been defended earlier in the century by henry of ghent in his ordinatio i 3 1 4 he argued against the sceptical consequences that henry claimed would follow from abandoning divine illumination scotus argued that if our thinking were fallible in the way henry had believed such illumination could not even in principle ensure certain and pure knowledge 42 43 immaculate conception edit perhaps the most influential point of duns scotus s theology was his defense of the immaculate conception of mary i e that mary herself was conceived without sin at the time there was a great deal of argument about the subject the general opinion was that it was appropriately deferential to the mother of god but it could not be seen how to resolve the problem that only with christ s death would the stain of original sin be removed the great philosophers and theologians of the west were divided on the subject indeed even thomas aquinas sided with those who denied the doctrine the feast day had existed in the east though in the east the feast is just of the conception of mary since the seventh century and had been introduced in several dioceses in the west as well even though the philosophical basis was lacking citing anselm of canterbury s principle potuit decuit ergo fecit he i e god could do it it was appropriate therefore he did it duns scotus devised the following argument mary was in need of redemption like all other human beings but through the merits of jesus crucifixion given in advance she was conceived without the stain of original sin god could have brought it about 1 that she was never in original sin 2 she was in sin only for an instant 3 she was in sin for a period of time being purged at the last instant whichever of these options was most excellent should probably be attributed to mary 44 this apparently careful statement provoked a storm of opposition at paris and suggested the line fired france for mary without spot in the famous poem duns scotus s oxford by gerard manley hopkins scotus s argument appears in pope pius ix s 1854 declaration of the dogma of the immaculate conception at the first moment of her conception mary was preserved free from the stain of original sin in view of the merits of jesus christ 45 scotus s position was hailed as a correct expression of the faith of the apostles 45 another of scotus s positions also gained official approval of the catholic church his doctrine on the universal primacy of christ became the underlying rationale for the feast of christ the king instituted in 1925 45 scotus disagreed with augustine on forced conversion of the jews declaring that a small number should be left unmolested on an island to serve as the remnant 46 47 during his pontificate pope john xxiii recommended the reading of duns scotus s theology to modern theology students citation needed veneration edit duns scotus was long honored as a blessed by the order of friars minor as well as in the archdioceses of edinburgh and cologne in the 19th century the process was started seeking his recognition as such by the holy see on the basis of a cultus immemorabilis i e one of ancient standing 13 on 27 july 1920 a committee of theologians was convened to evaluate his spiritual writings for orthodoxy 48 he was declared venerable by pope john paul ii in 1991 who officially recognized his liturgical cult effectively beatifying him on 20 march 1993 49 later reputation and influence edit later medieval period edit owing to scotus s early and unexpected death he left behind a large body of work in an unfinished or unedited condition his students and disciples extensively edited his papers often confusing them with works by other writers in many cases leading to misattribution and confused transmission most 13th century franciscans followed bonaventura but the influence of scotus as well as that of his arch rival william of ockham spread in the fourteenth century franciscan theologians in the late middle ages were thus divided between so called scotists and ockhamists fourteenth century followers included francis of mayrone died 1325 antonius andreas died 1320 william of alnwick died 1333 and john of bassolis died 1347 supposedly scotus s favourite student 50 sixteenth to nineteenth centuries edit his reputation suffered during the english reformation probably due to its association with the franciscans in a letter to thomas cromwell about his visit to oxford in 1535 richard layton described how he saw the court of new college full of pages from scotus s work the wind blowing them into every corner 51 john leland described the oxford greyfriar s library in 1538 just prior to its dissolution as an accumulation of cobwebs moths and bookworms 52 critics of scotus work described his followers as dunces the dunce cap was later used as a form of punishment in schools and the word dunce has come to be used as a term to describe someone dull witted when in the sixteenth century the scotists argued against renaissance humanism the term duns or dunce became in the mouths of humanists and reformers a term of abuse and a synonym for one incapable of scholarship 53 54 despite this scotism grew in catholic europe scotus s works were collected into many editions particularly in the late fifteenth century with the advent of printing his school was probably at the height of its popularity at the beginning of the seventeenth century during the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries there were special scotist chairs e g at paris rome coimbra salamanca alcalá padua and pavia new ideas were included pseudographically in later editions of his work such as the principle of explosion now attributed to pseudo scotus scotism flourished well into the seventeenth century and its influence can be seen in such writers as descartes and bramhall interest dwindled in the eighteenth century and the revival of scholastic philosophy known as neo scholasticism was essentially a revival of thomistic thinking gerard manley hopkins was able to reconcile his religious calling and his vocation as a poet thanks to his reading of duns scotus his poem as kingfishers catch fire expresses duns scotus s ideas on haecceity twentieth century edit the twentieth century saw a resurgence of interest in scotus with a range of assessments of his thought for one thing scotus has received interest from secular philosophers such as martin heidegger peter king gyula klima paul vincent spade and others for some today scotus is one of the most important franciscan theologians and the founder of scotism a special form of scholasticism he came out of the old franciscan school to which haymo of faversham died 1244 alexander of hales died 1245 john of rupella died 1245 william of melitona died 1260 st bonaventure died 1274 cardinal matthew of aquasparta died 1289 john peckham archbishop of canterbury died 1292 richard of middletown died c 1300 and others belonged he was known as doctor subtilis because of the subtle distinctions and nuances of his thinking an important question since the 1960s has revolved over whether scotus s thought heralded a change in thinking on the nature of being a change which marked a shift from aquinas and other previous thinkers this question has been particularly significa...