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eutrons of a nuclide are organized into discrete hierarchical energy levels with unique quantum numbers nucleon decay within a nucleus can occur if allowed by basic energy conservation and quantum mechanical constraints the decay products that is the emitted particles carry away the energy excess as a nucleon falls from one quantum state to one with less energy while the neutron or proton changes to a proton or neutron for a neutron to decay the resulting proton requires an available state at lower energy than the initial neutron state in stable nuclei the possible lower energy states are all filled meaning each state is occupied by a pair of protons one with spin up another with spin down when all available proton states are filled the pauli exclusion principle disallows the decay of a neutron to a proton 53 3 3 the situation is similar to electrons of an atom where electrons that occupy distinct atomic orbitals are prevented by the exclusion principle from decaying to lower already occupied energy states 53 3 3 the stability of matter is a consequence of these constraints 54 55 56 the decay of a neutron within a nuclide is illustrated by the decay of the carbon isotope carbon 14 which has 6 protons and 8 neutrons with its excess of neutrons this isotope decays by beta decay to nitrogen 14 7 protons 7 neutrons a process with a half life of about 5 730 years 57 nitrogen 14 is stable 58 free neutron edit main article free neutron decay neutrons are tightly bound in atomic nuclei requiring mev sized energies to escape once free neutrons decay in a quarter of an hour on average thus free neutrons are rare compared to other components of atoms electrons are freed by heating a light bulb filament and protons are freed in rapid hydrogen gas combustion moreover once freed in say a nuclear reactor the charge free neutrons are difficult to direct confine or detect 59 the neutron has a mean square radius of about 0 8 10 15 m or 0 8 fm 60 and it is a spin 1 2 fermion 61 the neutron has no measurable electric charge with its positive electric charge the proton is directly influenced by electric fields whereas the neutron is unaffected by electric fields 62 the neutron has a magnetic moment however so it is influenced by magnetic fields 63 the specific properties of the neutron are described below in the intrinsic properties section dineutrons and tetraneutrons edit main articles dineutron and tetraneutron the dineutron is considered a component in neutron rich 16 be nuclei 64 and an unbound state with lifetimes less than 10 22 seconds the first evidence for this state was reported by haddock et al in 1965 65 275 evidence for unbound clusters of 4 neutrons or tetraneutron as resonances in the disintegration of beryllium 14 nuclei 66 in 8 he 8 be interactions 67 and collisions of 4 he nuclei give an estimated lifetime around 10 22 seconds 68 these discoveries should deepen our understanding of the nuclear forces 69 70 neutron stars and neutron matter edit main articles neutron matter and neutron star at extremely high pressures and temperatures nucleons and electrons are believed to collapse into bulk neutronic matter called neutron matter this is presumed to happen in neutron stars 71 the extreme pressure inside a neutron star may deform the neutrons into a cubic symmetry allowing tighter packing of neutrons 72 composition edit the principal feynman diagram for β decay of a neutron into a proton electron and electron antineutrino via an intermediate heavy w boson the principal feynman diagram for β decay of a proton into a neutron positron and electron neutrino via an intermediate heavy w boson main article standard model within the theoretical framework of the standard model for particle physics a neutron comprises two down quarks with charge 1 3 e and one up quark with charge 2 3 e the neutron is therefore a composite particle classified as a hadron the neutron is also classified as a baryon because it is composed of three valence quarks 73 the finite size of the neutron and its magnetic moment both indicate that the neutron is a composite rather than elementary particle the quarks of the neutron are held together by the strong force mediated by gluons 74 the nuclear force results from secondary effects of the more fundamental strong force the only possible decay mode for the neutron that obeys the conservation law for the baryon number is for one of the neutron s quarks to change flavour through a cabibbo kobayashi maskawa matrix via the weak interaction the decay of one of the neutron s down quarks into a lighter up quark can be achieved by the emission of a w boson by this process the standard model description of beta decay the neutron decays into a proton which contains one down and two up quarks an electron and an electron antineutrino the decay of the proton to a neutron occurs similarly through the weak force the decay of one of the proton s up quarks into a down quark can be achieved by the emission of a w boson the proton decays into a neutron a positron and an electron neutrino this reaction can only occur within an atomic nucleus which has a quantum state at lower energy available for the created neutron a schematic of the nucleus of an atom indicating β radiation the emission of a fast electron from the nucleus the decay also creates an antineutrino omitted and converts a neutron to a proton within the nucleus the inset shows beta decay of a free neutron an electron and antineutrino are created in this process beta decay edit main article beta decay neutrons and protons within a nucleus behave similarly and can exchange their identities by similar reactions these reactions are a form of radioactive decay known as beta decay 75 beta decay in which neutrons decay to protons or vice versa is governed by the weak force and it requires the emission or absorption of electrons and neutrinos or their antiparticles 76 the neutron and proton decay reactions are n 0 p e ν e where p e and ν e denote the proton electron and electron anti neutrino decay products 77 and p n 0 e ν e where n 0 e and ν e denote the neutron positron and electron neutrino decay products the electron and positron produced in these reactions are historically known as beta particles denoted β or β respectively lending the name to the decay process 76 in these reactions the original particle is not composed of the product particles rather the product particles are created at the instant of the reaction 43 369 370 beta decay reactions can also occur by the capture of a lepton by the nucleon the transformation of a proton to a neutron inside of a nucleus is possible through electron capture 78 p e n 0 ν e a rarer reaction inverse beta decay involves the capture of a neutrino by a nucleon 79 rarer still positron capture by neutrons can occur in the high temperature environment of stars 80 properties edit mass edit the mass of a neutron cannot be directly determined by mass spectrometry since it has no electric charge but since the masses of a proton and of a deuteron can be measured with a mass spectrometer the mass of a neutron can be deduced by subtracting proton mass from deuteron mass with the difference being the mass of the neutron plus the binding energy of deuterium expressed as a positive emitted energy the latter can be directly measured by measuring the energy b d displaystyle b_ d of the single 2 224 mev gamma photon emitted when a deuteron is formed by a proton capturing a neutron this is exothermic and happens with zero energy neutrons the small recoil kinetic energy e r d displaystyle e_ rd of the deuteron about 0 06 of the total energy must also be accounted for m n m d m p b d e r d displaystyle m_ n m_ d m_ p b_ d e_ rd the energy of the gamma ray can be measured to high precision by x ray diffraction techniques as was first done by bell and elliot in 1948 the best modern 1986 values for neutron mass by this technique are provided by greene et al 81 these give a neutron mass of m neutron 1 008 664 916 06 40 da 5 the value for the neutron mass in mev is less accurately known due to less accuracy in the known conversion of da to mev c 2 53 18 19 m neutron 939 565 421 94 48 mev c 2 4 another method to determine the mass of a neutron starts from the beta decay of the neutron when the momenta of the resulting proton and electron are measured spin edit the neutron is a spin 1 2 particle that is it is a fermion with intrinsic angular momentum equal to 1 2 ħ where ħ is the reduced planck constant for many years after the discovery of the neutron its exact spin was ambiguous although it was assumed to be a spin 1 2 dirac particle the possibility that the neutron was a spin 3 2 particle lingered the interactions of the neutron s magnetic moment with an external magnetic field were exploited to finally determine the spin of the neutron 82 in 1949 hughes and burgy measured neutrons reflected from a ferromagnetic mirror and found that the angular distribution of the reflections was consistent with spin 1 2 83 in 1954 sherwood stephenson and bernstein employed neutrons in a stern gerlach experiment that used a magnetic field to separate the neutron spin states they recorded two such spin states consistent with a spin 1 2 particle 82 84 as a fermion the neutron is subject to the pauli exclusion principle two neutrons cannot have the same quantum numbers this is the source of the degeneracy pressure which counteracts gravity in neutron stars and prevents them from forming black holes 85 see also delta baryon magnetic moment edit main article nucleon magnetic moment even though the neutron is a neutral particle the magnetic moment of a neutron is not zero the neutron is not affected by electric fields but it is affected by magnetic fields the value for the neutron s magnetic moment was first directly measured by luis alvarez and felix bloch at berkeley california in 1940 86 alvarez and bloch determined the magnetic moment of the neutron to be μ n 1 93 2 μ n where μ n is the nuclear magneton the neutron s magnetic moment has a negative value because its orientation is opposite to the neutron s spin 87 the magnetic moment of the neutron is an indication of its quark substructure and internal charge distribution 88 in the quark model for hadrons the neutron is composed of one up quark charge 2 3 e and two down quarks charge 1 3 e 88 the magnetic moment of the neutron can be modeled as a sum of the magnetic moments of the constituent quarks 89 the calculation assumes that the quarks behave like point like dirac particles each having their own magnetic moment simplistically the magnetic moment of the neutron can be viewed as resulting from the vector sum of the three quark magnetic moments plus the orbital magnetic moments caused by the movement of the three charged quarks within the neutron in one of the early successes of the standard model in 1964 mirza a b beg benjamin w lee and abraham pais calculated the ratio of proton to neutron magnetic moments to be 3 2 or a ratio of 1 5 which agrees with the experimental value to within 3 90 91 92 the measured value for this ratio is 1 459 898 05 34 8 the above treatment compares neutrons with protons allowing the complex behavior of quarks to be subtracted out between models and merely exploring what the effects would be of differing quark charges or quark type such calculations are enough to show that the interior of neutrons is very much like that of protons save for the difference in quark composition with a down quark in the neutron replacing an up quark in the proton the neutron magnetic moment can be roughly computed by assuming a simple nonrelativistic quantum mechanical wavefunction for baryons composed of three quarks a straightforward calculation gives fairly accurate estimates for the magnetic moments of neutrons protons and other baryons 89 for a neutron the result of this calculation is that the magnetic moment of the neutron is given by μ n 4 3 μ d 1 3 μ u where μ d and μ u are the magnetic moments for the down and up quarks respectively this result combines the intrinsic magnetic moments of the quarks with their orbital magnetic moments and assumes the three quarks are in a particular dominant quantum state baryon magnetic moment of quark model computed μ n displaystyle mu _ mathrm n observed μ n displaystyle mu _ mathrm n p 4 3 μ u 1 3 μ d 2 79 2 793 n 4 3 μ d 1 3 μ u 1 86 1 913 the results of this calculation are encouraging but the masses of the up or down quarks were assumed to be 1 3 the mass of a nucleon 89 the masses of the quarks are actually only about 1 that of a nucleon 93 the discrepancy stems from the complexity of the standard model for nucleons where most of their mass originates in the gluon fields virtual particles and their associated energy that are essential aspects of the strong force 93 94 furthermore the complex system of quarks and gluons that constitute a neutron requires a relativistic treatment 95 but the nucleon magnetic moment has been successfully computed numerically from first principles including all of the effects mentioned and using more realistic values for the quark masses the calculation gave results that were in fair agreement with measurement but it required significant computing resources 96 97 electric charge edit the total electric charge of the neutron is 0 e this zero value has been tested experimentally and the present experimental limit for the charge of the neutron is 2 8 10 22 e 7 or 3 13 10 41 c this value is consistent with zero given the experimental uncertainties indicated in parentheses by comparison the charge of the proton is 1 e electric dipole moment edit main article neutron electric dipole moment the standard model of particle physics predicts a tiny separation of positive and negative charge within the neutron leading to a permanent electric dipole moment 98 but the predicted value is well below the current sensitivity of experiments from several unsolved puzzles in particle physics it is clear that the standard model is not the final and full description of all particles and their interactions new theories going beyond the standard model generally lead to much larger predictions for the electric dipole moment of the neutron currently there are at least four experiments trying to measure for the first time a finite neutron electric dipole moment including cryogenic neutron edm experiment being set up at the institut laue langevin 99 n2edm experiment under construction at the ucn source at the paul scherrer institute 100 nedm experiment being envisaged at the spallation neutron source 101 102 nedm experiment being built at the institut laue langevin 103 antineutron edit main article antineutron the antineutron is the antiparticle of the neutron it was discovered by bruce cork in 1956 a year after the antiproton was discovered neutrons have baryon number equal to 1 while antineutrons have 1 while all measured particle interactions conserv...