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atives 66 67 formation of the holy roman empire pope leo viii of the holy roman church the holy roman empire during the ottonian dynasty the holy roman empire between 972 and 1032 in 951 otto came to the aid of queen adelaide of italy defeating her enemies marrying her and taking control over italy 68 in 955 otto won a decisive victory over the magyars in the battle of lechfeld 69 in 962 otto was crowned emperor by pope john xii 69 thus intertwining the affairs of the german kingdom with those of italy and the papacy otto s coronation as emperor marked the german kings as successors to the empire of charlemagne which through the concept of translatio imperii also made them consider themselves as successors to ancient rome the flowering of arts beginning with otto the great s reign is known as the ottonian renaissance centered in germany but also happening in northern italy and france 70 71 otto created the imperial church system often called ottonian church system of the reich which tied the great imperial churches and their representatives to imperial service thus providing a stable and long lasting framework for germany 72 73 during the ottonian era imperial women played a prominent role in political and ecclesiastic affairs often combining their functions as religious leader and advisor regent or co ruler notably matilda of ringelheim eadgyth adelaide of italy theophanu and matilda of quedlinburg 74 75 76 77 in 963 otto deposed john xii and chose leo viii as the new pope although john xii and leo viii both claimed the papacy until 964 when john xii died this also renewed the conflict with the byzantine emperor especially after otto s son otto ii r 967 983 adopted the designation imperator romanorum still otto ii formed marital ties with the east when he married the byzantine princess theophanu 78 their son otto iii came to the throne only three years old and was subjected to a power struggle and series of regencies until his age of majority in 994 up to that time he remained in germany while a deposed duke crescentius ii ruled over rome and part of italy ostensibly in his stead in 996 otto iii appointed his cousin gregory v the first german pope 79 a foreign pope and foreign papal officers were seen with suspicion by roman nobles who were led by crescentius ii to revolt otto iii s former mentor antipope john xvi briefly held rome until the holy roman emperor seized the city 80 otto died young in 1002 and was succeeded by his cousin henry ii who focused on germany 81 otto iii s and his mentor pope sylvester s diplomatic activities coincided with and facilitated the christianization and the spread of latin culture in different parts of europe 82 83 they coopted a new group of nations slavic into the framework of europe with their empire functioning as some remark as a byzantine like presidency over a family of nations centered on pope and emperor in rome this has proved a lasting achievement 84 85 86 87 though otto s early death made his reign the tale of largely unrealized potential 88 89 henry ii died in 1024 and conrad ii first of the salian dynasty was elected king only after some debate among dukes and nobles this group eventually developed into the college of electors the holy roman empire eventually came to be composed of four kingdoms kingdom of germany part of the empire since 962 kingdom of italy from 962 until 1801 kingdom of bohemia from 1002 as the duchy of bohemia and raised to a kingdom in 1198 kingdom of burgundy from 1032 to 1378 high middle ages investiture controversy main article investiture controversy kings often employed bishops in administrative affairs and often determined who would be appointed to ecclesiastical offices 90 in the wake of the cluniac reforms this involvement was increasingly seen as inappropriate by the papacy the reform minded pope gregory vii was determined to oppose such practices which led to the investiture controversy with king henry iv r 1056 1106 crowned emperor in 1084 90 henry begging matilda of tuscany and hugh of cluny in canossa castle miniature in an illuminated manuscript kept in the vatican library 1115 henry iv repudiated the pope s interference and persuaded his bishops to excommunicate the pope whom he famously addressed by his birth name hildebrand rather than his papal name gregory 91 the pope in turn excommunicated the king declared him deposed and dissolved the oaths of loyalty made to henry 14 91 the king found himself with almost no political support and was forced to make the famous walk to canossa in 1077 92 by which he achieved a lifting of the excommunication at the price of humiliation meanwhile the german princes had elected another king rudolf of swabia 93 henry managed to defeat rudolf but was subsequently confronted with more uprisings renewed excommunication and even the rebellion of his sons after his death his second son henry v reached an agreement with the pope and the bishops in the 1122 concordat of worms 94 the political power of the empire was maintained but the conflict had demonstrated the limits of the ruler s power especially in regard to the church and it robbed the king of the sacral status he had previously enjoyed the pope and the german princes had surfaced as major players in the political system of the holy roman empire ostsiedlung main article ostsiedlung as the result of ostsiedlung less populated regions of central europe i e sparsely populated border areas in present day poland and the czech republic received a significant number of german speakers silesia became part of the holy roman empire as the result of the local piast dukes push for autonomy from the polish crown 95 from the late 12th century the duchy of pomerania was under the suzerainty of the holy roman empire 96 and the conquests of the teutonic order made that region german speaking 97 hohenstaufen dynasty frederick barbarossa holy roman emperor when the salian dynasty ended with henry v s death in 1125 the princes chose not to elect the next of kin but rather lothair iii the moderately powerful but already old duke of saxony when he died in 1137 the princes again aimed to check royal power accordingly they did not elect lothair s favoured heir his son in law henry the proud of the welf family but conrad iii of the hohenstaufen family the grandson of emperor henry iv and nephew of emperor henry v this led to over a century of strife between the two houses conrad ousted the welfs from their possessions but after his death in 1152 his nephew frederick barbarossa succeeded him and made peace with the welfs restoring his cousin henry the lion to his albeit diminished possessions the hohenstaufen rulers increasingly lent land to ministeriales formerly non free servicemen who frederick hoped would be more reliable than dukes initially used mainly for war services this new class of people would form the basis for the later knights another basis of imperial power a further important constitutional move at roncaglia was the establishment of a new peace mechanism for the entire empire the landfrieden with the first imperial one being issued in 1103 under henry iv at mainz 98 99 this was an attempt to abolish private feuds between the many dukes and other people and to tie the emperor s subordinates to a legal system of jurisdiction and public prosecution of criminal acts a predecessor of the modern concept of rule of law another new concept of the time was the systematic founding of new cities by the emperor and by the local dukes these were partly a result of the explosion in population they also concentrated economic power at strategic locations before this cities had only existed in the form of old roman foundations or older bishoprics cities that were founded in the 12th century include freiburg possibly the economic model for many later cities and munich frederick barbarossa was crowned emperor in 1155 he emphasized the romanness of the empire partly in an attempt to justify the power of the emperor independent of the now strengthened pope an imperial assembly at the fields of roncaglia in 1158 reclaimed imperial rights in reference to justinian i s corpus juris civilis imperial rights had been referred to as regalia since the investiture controversy but were enumerated for the first time at roncaglia this comprehensive list included public roads tariffs coining collecting punitive fees and the seating and unseating of office holders these rights were now explicitly rooted in roman law a far reaching constitutional act the holy roman empire at its greatest extent under emperor frederick ii frederick s policies were primarily directed at italy where he clashed with the free minded cities of the north especially the duchy of milan he also embroiled himself in another conflict with the papacy by supporting a candidate elected by a minority against pope alexander iii 1159 1181 frederick supported a succession of antipopes before finally making peace with alexander in 1177 in germany the emperor had repeatedly protected henry the lion against complaints by rival princes or cities especially in the cases of munich and lübeck henry gave only lackluster support to frederick s policies and in a critical situation during the italian wars henry refused the emperor s plea for military support after returning to germany an embittered frederick opened proceedings against the duke resulting in a public ban and the confiscation of all henry s territories in 1190 frederick participated in the third crusade dying in the armenian kingdom of cilicia 100 during the hohenstaufen period german princes facilitated a successful eastward expansion of lands inhabited by west slavs typically through military conquest german speaking farmers traders and craftsmen from the western part of the empire both christians and jews moved into these areas the germanization of these lands that followed took place through gradual cultural exchange and german christian outnumbering of the natives in contrast to the nationalist oriented modern germanization of the 19th century the eastward settlement expanded the influence of the empire to include pomerania and silesia as did the intermarriage of the local still mostly slavic rulers with german spouses the teutonic knights were invited to prussia by duke konrad of masovia to christianize the prussians in 1226 the monastic state of the teutonic order deutschordensstaat and its later german successor state of the duchy of prussia was never part of the holy roman empire under the son and successor of frederick barbarossa henry vi the hohenstaufen dynasty reached its apex with the addition of the norman kingdom of sicily through the marriage of henry vi and constance of sicily bohemia and poland were under feudal dependence while cyprus and lesser armenia also paid homage the iberian moroccan caliph accepted his claims over the suzerainty over tunis and tripolitania and paid tribute fearing the power of henry the most powerful monarch in europe since charlemagne the other european kings formed an alliance but henry broke this coalition by blackmailing english king richard the lionheart the byzantine emperor worried that henry would turn his crusade plan against his empire and began to collect the alamanikon to prepare against the expected invasion henry also had plans for turning the empire into a hereditary monarchy although this met with opposition from some of the princes and the pope the emperor suddenly died in 1197 leading to the partial collapse of his empire 101 102 103 as his son frederick ii though already elected king was still a small child and living in sicily german princes chose to elect an adult king resulting in the dual election of frederick barbarossa s youngest son philip of swabia and henry the lion s son otto of brunswick who competed for the crown after philip was murdered in a private squabble in 1208 otto prevailed for a while until he began to also claim sicily 104 frederick ii holy roman emperor pope innocent iii who feared the threat posed by a union of the empire and sicily was now supported by frederick ii who marched to germany and defeated otto after his victory frederick did not act upon his promise to keep the two realms separate though he had made his son henry king of sicily before marching on germany he still reserved real political power for himself this continued after frederick was crowned emperor in 1220 fearing frederick s concentration of power the pope finally excommunicated him another point of contention was the crusade which frederick had promised but repeatedly postponed now although excommunicated frederick led the sixth crusade in 1228 which ended in negotiations and a temporary restoration of the kingdom of jerusalem for his many sided activities prestige and dynamic personality frederick ii has been called the greatest of all the medieval german emperors 105 in the kingdom of sicily and much of italy frederick built upon the work of his norman predecessors and forged an early absolutist state bound together by an efficient secular bureaucracy despite his imperial prestige and power frederick ii s rule was a major turning point toward the partitioning of central rule in the empire since his political focus was south of the alps he was mostly absent from germany and issued far reaching privileges to germany s secular and ecclesiastical princes to ensure their cooperation in the 1220 confoederatio cum principibus ecclesiasticis frederick gave up a number of regalia in favour of the bishops among them tariffs coining and the right to build fortification the 1232 statutum in favorem principum mostly extended these privileges to secular territories although many of these privileges had existed earlier they were now granted globally and once and for all to allow the german princes to maintain order north of the alps while frederick concentrated on italy the 1232 document marked the first time that the german dukes were called domini terrae owners of their lands a remarkable change in terminology as well the statutum affirmed a division of labor between the emperor and the princes and laid much groundwork for the development of particularism in germany even so from 1232 the vassals of the emperor had a veto over imperial legislative decisions and any new law established by the emperor had to be approved by the princes these provisions not withstanding royal power in germany remained strong under frederick and by the 1240s the crown was still rich in fiscal resources land holdings retinues and all other rights revenues and jurisdictions frederick ii used the political loyalty and practical jurisdictions granted to the higher german aristocracy to impose peace order and justice upon germany the jurisdictional autarky of the german princes was favoured by the crown itself in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in the interests of order and local peace the inevitable result was the territorial particularism of...