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of the empire that had been engulfed in civil conflicts after the end of the hohenstaufen era on the other hand the blow to central authority was unmistakable 113 thomas brady jr opines that charles iv s intention was to end contested royal elections from the luxembourghs perspective they also had the advantage that the king of bohemia had a permanent and preeminent status as one of the electors himself 114 115 at the same time he built up bohemia as the luxembourghs core land of the empire and their dynastic base his reign in bohemia is often considered the land s golden age according to brady jr though under all the glitter one problem arose the government showed an inability to deal with the german immigrant waves into bohemia thus leading to religious tensions and persecutions the imperial project of the luxembourgh halted under charles s son wenceslaus reigned 1378 1419 as king of bohemia 1376 1400 as king of the romans who also faced opposition from 150 local baronial families 116 the shift in power away from the emperor is also revealed in the way the post hohenstaufen kings attempted to sustain their power earlier the empire s strength and finances greatly relied on the empire s own lands the so called reichsgut which always belonged to the king of the day and included many imperial cities after the 13th century the relevance of the reichsgut faded even though some parts of it did remain until the empire s end in 1806 instead the reichsgut was increasingly pawned to local dukes sometimes to raise money for the empire but more frequently to reward faithful duty or as an attempt to establish control over the dukes the direct governance of the reichsgut no longer matched the needs of either the king or the dukes citation needed the kings beginning with rudolf i of germany increasingly relied on the lands of their respective dynasties to support their power in contrast with the reichsgut which was mostly scattered and difficult to administer these territories were relatively compact and thus easier to control in 1282 rudolf i thus lent austria and styria to his own sons in 1312 henry vii of the house of luxembourg was crowned as the first holy roman emperor since frederick ii after him all kings and emperors relied on the lands of their own family hausmacht louis iv of wittelsbach king 1314 emperor 1328 1347 relied on his lands in bavaria charles iv of luxembourg the grandson of henry vii drew strength from his own lands in bohemia it was thus increasingly in the king s own interest to strengthen the power of the territories since the king profited from such a benefit in his own lands as well citation needed imperial reform main article imperial reform holy roman emperor fredrick iii the constitution of the empire still remained largely unsettled at the beginning of the 15th century feuds often happened between local rulers the robber baron raubritter became a social factor 117 simultaneously the catholic church experienced crises of its own with wide reaching effects in the empire the conflict between several papal claimants two anti popes and the legitimate pope ended only with the council of constance 1414 1418 after 1419 the papacy directed much of its energy to suppressing the hussites the medieval idea of unifying all christendom into a single political entity with the church and the empire as its leading institutions began to decline with these drastic changes much discussion emerged in the 15th century about the empire itself rules from the past no longer adequately described the structure of the time and a reinforcement of earlier landfrieden was urgently needed 118 the vision for a simultaneous reform of the empire and the church on a central level began with sigismund reigned 1433 1437 king of the romans since 1411 who according to historian thomas brady jr possessed a breadth of vision and a sense of grandeur unseen in a german monarch since the thirteenth century but external difficulties self inflicted mistakes and the extinction of the luxembourg male line made this vision unfulfilled 119 frederick iii was the first habsburg to be crowned holy roman emperor in 1452 120 he had been very careful regarding the reform movement in the empire for most of his reign he considered reform as a threat to his imperial prerogatives he avoided direct confrontations which might lead to humiliation if the princes refused to give way 121 after 1440 the reform of the empire and church was sustained and led by local and regional powers particularly the territorial princes 122 in his last years he felt more pressure on taking action from a higher level berthold von henneberg the archbishop of mainz who spoke on behalf of reform minded princes who wanted to reform the empire without strengthening the imperial hand capitalized on frederick s desire to secure the imperial election for his son maximilian thus in his last years he presided over the initial phase of imperial reform which would mainly unfold under maximilian maximilian himself was more open to reform although naturally he also wanted to preserve and enhance imperial prerogatives after frederick retired to linz in 1488 as a compromise maximilian acted as mediator between the princes and his father when he attained sole rule after frederick s death he would continue this policy of brokerage acting as the impartial judge between options suggested by the princes 123 25 creation of institutions innsbruck most important political centre under maximilian 124 seat of the hofkammer court treasury and the court chancery which functioned as the most influential body in maximilian s government 125 painting of albrecht dürer 1496 major measures for the reform were launched at the 1495 reichstag at worms a new organ was introduced the reichskammergericht that was to be largely independent from the emperor a new tax was launched to finance it the gemeine pfennig although this would only be collected under charles v and ferdinand i and not fully 126 127 128 to create a rival for the reichskammergericht maximilian established the reichshofrat in 1497 which had its seat in vienna during maximilian s reign this council was not popular though in the long run the two courts functioned in parallel sometimes overlapping 129 130 in 1500 maximilian agreed to establish an organ called the reichsregiment central imperial government consisting of twenty members including the electors with the emperor or his representative as its chairman first organized in 1501 in nuremberg maximilian resented the new organization while the estates failed to support it the new organ proved politically weak and its power returned to maximilian in 1502 131 130 132 the most important governmental changes targeted the heart of the regime the chancery early in maximilian s reign the court chancery at innsbruck competed with the imperial chancery which was under the elector archbishop of mainz the senior imperial chancellor by referring the political matters in tyrol austria as well as imperial problems to the court chancery maximilian gradually centralized its authority the two chanceries became combined in 1502 125 in 1496 the emperor created a general treasury hofkammer in innsbruck which became responsible for all the hereditary lands the chamber of accounts raitkammer at vienna was made subordinate to this body 133 under paul von liechtenstein de the hofkammer was entrusted with not only hereditary lands affairs but maximilian s affairs as the german king too 134 reception of roman law maximilian i paying attention to an execution instead of watching the betrothal of his son philip the handsome and joanna of castile the top right corner shows cain and abel satire against maximilian s legal reform associated with imperial tyranny created on behalf of the councilors of augsburg plate 89 of von der arztney bayder glück by the petrarcameister de 135 at the 1495 diet of worms the reception of roman law was accelerated and formalized the roman law was made binding in german courts except in the case it was contrary to local statutes 136 in practice it became the basic law throughout germany displacing germanic local law to a large extent although germanic law was still operative at the lower courts 137 138 139 140 other than the desire to achieve legal unity and other factors the adoption also highlighted the continuity between the ancient roman empire and the holy roman empire 141 to realize his resolve to reform and unify the legal system the emperor frequently intervened personally in matters of local legal matters overriding local charters and customs this practice was often met with irony and scorn from local councils who wanted to protect local codes 142 the legal reform seriously weakened the ancient vehmic court vehmgericht or secret tribunal of westphalia traditionally held to be instituted by charlemagne but this theory is now considered unlikely 143 144 although it would not be abolished completely until 1811 when it was abolished under the order of jérôme bonaparte 145 146 national political culture maximilian and charles v despite the fact both emperors were internationalists personally 147 148 were the first who mobilized the rhetoric of the nation firmly identified with the reich by the contemporary humanists 117 with encouragement from maximilian and his humanists iconic spiritual figures were reintroduced or became notable the humanists rediscovered the work germania written by tacitus according to peter h wilson the female figure of germania was reinvented by the emperor as the virtuous pacific mother of holy roman empire of the german nation 149 whaley further suggests that despite the later religious divide patriotic motifs developed during maximilian s reign both by maximilian himself and by the humanist writers who responded to him formed the core of a national political culture 150 maximilian s reign also witnessed the gradual emergence of the german common language with the notable roles of the imperial chancery and the chancery of the wettin elector frederick the wise 151 152 the development of the printing industry together with the emergence of the postal system the first modern one in the world 153 initiated by maximilian himself with contribution from frederick iii and charles the bold led to a revolution in communication and allowed ideas to spread unlike the situation in more centralized countries the decentralized nature of the empire made censorship difficult 154 155 156 157 terence mcintosh comments that the expansionist aggressive policy pursued by maximilian i and charles v at the inception of the early modern german nation although not to further the aims specific to the german nation per se relying on german manpower as well as utilizing fearsome landsknechte and mercenaries would affect the way neighbours viewed the german polity although in the longue durée germany tended to be at peace 158 imperial power maximilian i holy roman emperor maximilian was the first holy roman emperor in 250 years who ruled as well as reigned in the early 1500s he was true master of the empire although his power weakened during the last decade before his death 159 160 whaley notes that despite struggles what emerged at the end of maximilian s rule was a strengthened monarchy and not an oligarchy of princes 161 benjamin curtis opines that while maximilian was not able to fully create a common government for his lands although the chancellery and court council were able to coordinate affairs across the realms he strengthened key administrative functions in austria and created central offices to deal with financial political and judicial matters these offices replaced the feudal system and became representative of a more modern system that was administered by professionalized officials after two decades of reforms the emperor retained his position as first among equals while the empire gained common institutions through which the emperor shared power with the estates 162 despite this some say that the estates still held power in the institutions and the emperor s power came from his own lands as a territorial prince with the empire being an amalgamation of princes and territories with maximilian as an umbrella of imperial governance above them 163 by the early 16th century the habsburg rulers had become the most powerful in europe but their strength relied on their composite monarchy as a whole and not only the holy roman empire see also empire of charles v 164 165 maximilian had seriously considered combining the burgundian lands inherited from his wife mary of burgundy with his austrian lands to form a powerful core while also extending toward the east 166 after the unexpected addition of spain to the habsburg empire at one point he intended to leave austria raised to a kingdom to his younger grandson ferdinand 167 his elder grandson charles v later gave spain and most of the burgundian lands to his son philip ii of spain the founder of the spanish branch and the habsburg hereditary lands to his brother ferdinand the founder of the austrian branch 168 in france and england from the 13th century onward stationary royal residences had begun to develop into capital cities that grew rapidly and developed corresponding infrastructure the palais de la cité and the palace of westminster became the respective main residences this was not possible in the holy roman empire because no real hereditary monarchy emerged but rather the tradition of elective monarchy prevailed see imperial election which in the high middle ages led to kings of very different regional origins being elected list of royal and imperial elections in the holy roman empire if they wanted to control the empire and its rebellious regional rulers they could not limit themselves to their home region and their private palaces as a result kings and emperors continued to travel around the empire well into modern times 169 using their temporary residences kaiserpfalz as transit stations for their itinerant courts from the late middle ages onward the weakly fortified pfalzen were replaced by imperial castles it was only king ferdinand i the younger brother of the then emperor charles v who moved his main residence to the vienna hofburg in the middle of the 16th century where most of the following habsburg emperors subsequently resided vienna did not become the capital of the empire just of a habsburg hereditary state the archduchy of austria the emperors continued to travel to their elections and coronations at frankfurt and aachen to the imperial diets at different places and to other occasions the perpetual diet of regensburg was based in regensburg from 1663 to 1806 rudolf ii resided in prague the wittelsbach emperor charles vii in munich a german capital in the true sense only existed in the second german empire from 1871 when the kaiser reichstag and reichskanzler resided in berlin early capitalism map of augsburg corresponding w...