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rers 46 these programs cultivated democratic values and promoted active participation in political analysis throughout the 20th century rhetoric developed as a concentrated field of study with the establishment of rhetorical courses in high schools and universities courses such as public speaking and speech analysis apply fundamental greek theories such as the modes of persuasion ethos pathos and logos and trace rhetorical development through history rhetoric earned a more esteemed reputation as a field of study with the emergence of communication studies departments and of rhetoric and composition programs within english departments in universities 47 and in conjunction with the linguistic turn in western philosophy rhetorical study has broadened in scope and is especially used by the fields of marketing politics and literature the writing classroom which includes fields of rhetoric and of composition studies 48 aims to prepare students for participation in public life 49 a broad understanding of rhetoric is needed to engage meaningfully in society 50 scholars however have criticized the composition classroom for its inability to develop rhetorical skills in students sharon crowley contends that the current traditional rhetorical approach common in many schools today has oversimplified the writing process reducing the composition classroom to a series of exercises wherein students simply demonstrate their mastery of textbook trivia 51 many curricula also center on win oriented argumentation which can limit the development of critical thinking by encouraging students to defend predetermined positions rather than engage with the complexities of an issue 52 these criticisms reflect a broader concern that rhetorical education has been neglected in favor of prescriptive instruction in response scholars have called for changes to rhetoric and composition pedagogy including expanding writing programs to incorporate multimodal forms of rhetoric that help students understand forms of rhetorical production outside of written works 49 another area of rhetoric is the study of cultural rhetorics which is the communication that occurs between cultures and the study of the way members of a culture communicate with each other 53 these ideas specify can then be studied and understood by other cultures in order to bridge gaps in modes of communication and help different cultures communicate effectively with each other james zappen defines cultural rhetorics as the idea that rhetoric is concerned with negotiation and listening not persuasion which differs from ancient definitions 53 some ancient rhetoric was disparaged because its persuasive techniques could be used to teach falsehoods 54 communication as studied in cultural rhetorics is focused on listening and negotiation and has little to do with persuasion 53 cultural rhetoric is not a singular definition or any one thing but instead an approach to rhetoric that highlights the connection of culture and rhetoric the article interfacing cultural rhetorics a history and a call argues that culture and rhetoric should not be viewed only individually as they often overlap culture can be studied both as a process and as a context while rhetoric highlights how these cultural processes and contexts are expressed and negotiated an important theme from the article is that cultural rhetorics emphasized listening and negotiating bacon s analysis of coming out narratives highlights how rhetorics are not simply for persuasion but can help create meaning and write new bodies into existence indigenous rhetoricians including malea powell and angela haas emphasize the importance of place story and relationships in cultural rhetorics highlighting their decolonial nature 55 canons edit rhetorical education focused on five canons the five canons of rhetoric serve as a guide to creating persuasive messages and arguments inventio invention the process that leads to the development and refinement of an argument dispositio disposition or arrangement used to determine how an argument should be organized for greatest effect usually beginning with the exordium elocutio style determining how to present the arguments memoria memory the process of learning and memorizing the speech and persuasive messages pronuntiatio presentation and actio delivery the gestures pronunciation tone and pace used when presenting the persuasive arguments the grand style memory was added much later to the original four canons 56 music edit during the renaissance rhetoric enjoyed a resurgence and as a result nearly every author who wrote about music before the romantic era discussed rhetoric 57 joachim burmeister wrote in 1601 there is only little difference between music and the nature of oration quote needs citation christoph bernhard in the latter half of the century said until the art of music has attained such a height in our own day that it may indeed be compared to a rhetoric in view of the multitude of figures needs context 58 knowledge edit epistemology and rhetoric have been compared to one another for decades but the specifications of their similarities have gone undefined since scholar robert l scott stated that rhetoric is epistemic 59 rhetoricians and philosophers alike have struggled to concretely define the expanse of implications these words hold those who have identified this inconsistency maintain the idea that scott s relation is important but requires further study 60 the root of the issue lies in the ambiguous use of the term rhetoric itself as well as the epistemological terms knowledge certainty and truth 60 though counterintuitive and vague scott s claims are accepted by some academics but are then used to draw different conclusions sonja k foss for example takes on the view that rhetoric creates knowledge 61 whereas james herrick writes that rhetoric assists in people s ability to form beliefs which are defined as knowledge once they become widespread in a community 62 it is unclear whether scott holds that certainty is an inherent part of establishing knowledge his references to the term abstract 59 63 he is not the only one as the debate s persistence in philosophical circles long predates his addition of rhetoric there is an overwhelming majority that does support the concept of certainty as a requirement for knowledge but it is at the definition of certainty where parties begin to diverge one definition maintains that certainty is subjective and feeling based the other that it is a byproduct of justification the more commonly accepted definition of rhetoric claims it is synonymous with persuasion for rhetorical purposes this definition like many others is too broad the same issue presents itself with definitions that are too narrow rhetoricians in support of the epistemic view of rhetoric have yet to agree in this regard 60 philosophical teachings refer to knowledge as a justified true belief however the gettier problem explores the room for fallacy in this concept 64 therefore the gettier problem impedes the effectivity of the argument of richard a cherwitz and james a hikins 65 who employ the justified true belief standpoint in their argument for rhetoric as epistemic celeste condit railsback takes a different approach 66 drawing from ray e mckerrow s system of belief based on validity rather than certainty 67 william d harpine refers to the issue of unclear definitions that occurs in the theories of rhetoric is epistemic in his 2004 article what do you mean rhetoric is epistemic 60 in it he focuses on uncovering the most appropriate definitions for the terms rhetoric knowledge and certainty according to harpine certainty is either objective or subjective although both scotts 59 and cherwitz and hikins 65 theories deal with some form of certainty harpine believes that knowledge is not required to be neither objectively nor subjectively certain in terms of rhetoric harpine argues that the definition of rhetoric as the art of persuasion is the best choice in the context of this theoretical approach of rhetoric as epistemic harpine then proceeds to present two methods of approaching the idea of rhetoric as epistemic based on the definitions presented one centers on alston s 68 view that one s beliefs are justified if formed by one s normal doxastic while the other focuses on the causal theory of knowledge 69 both approaches manage to avoid gettier s problems and do not rely on unclear conceptions of certainty in what do you mean rhetoric is epistemic 1992 william d harpine explores the idea that rhetoric not only communicates knowledge but helps to create it based on the work of robert l scott harpine argues that knowledge is formed through persuasion dialogue and reasoning within communities rather than found as fixed truth he explains how certainty is subjective shaped by individual and cultural belief rather than by absolute objectivity harpine also connects to the gettier problem which challenges the idea that justified true belief is equal to knowledge by emphasizing communication and collaboration harpine closes that rhetoric functions as a social process in which people build test and revise what they accept as knowledge 70 in the discussion of rhetoric and epistemology comes the question of ethics is it ethical for rhetoric to present itself in the branch of knowledge scott rears this question addressing the issue not with ambiguity in the definitions of other terms but against subjectivity regarding certainty ultimately according to thomas o sloane rhetoric and epistemology exist as counterparts working towards the same purpose of establishing knowledge with the common enemy of subjective certainty 71 history and study edit ancient times edit rhetoric as persuasion originally in speech more than writing that holds people to a common purpose and therefore facilitates collective action has its origins in mesopotamia 72 some of the earliest examples of rhetoric can be found in the akkadian writings of the princess and priestess enheduanna c 2285 2250 bce 73 as the first named author in history 72 73 enheduanna s writing exhibits numerous rhetorical features that would later become canon in ancient greece enheduanna s the exaltation of inanna includes an exordium argument and peroration 72 as well as elements of ethos pathos and logos 73 and repetition and metonymy 74 she is also known for describing her process of invention in the exaltation of inanna moving between first and third person address to relate her composing process in collaboration with the goddess inanna 73 reflecting a mystical enthymeme 75 in drawing upon a cosmic audience 73 later examples of early rhetoric can be found in the neo assyrian empire during the time of sennacherib 704 681 bce 76 in ancient egypt rhetoric had existed since at least the middle kingdom period c 2080 1640 bce the five canons of eloquence in ancient egyptian rhetoric were silence timing restraint fluency and truthfulness 77 the egyptians held eloquent speaking in high esteem egyptian rules of rhetoric specified that knowing when not to speak is essential and very respected rhetorical knowledge making rhetoric a balance between eloquence and wise silence they also emphasized adherence to social behaviors that support a conservative status quo and they held that skilled speech should support not question society 78 in ancient china rhetoric dates back to the chinese philosopher confucius 551 479 bce the tradition of confucianism emphasized the use of eloquence in speaking 79 the use of rhetoric can also be found in the ancient biblical tradition 80 ancient greece and rome edit main article classical rhetoric ancient greece which was later subsumed under the growing roman civilization produced extensive early documented scholarship on rhetoric rhetoricians of classical greece included the sophists wandering professional teachers of rhetoric as well as isocrates one of the ten attic orators the philosopher plato and his student aristotle the most famous rhetorician of the roman republic was cicero and of the succeeding roman empire was quintillian all of these scholars created formalized systems and classifications of rhetorical strategies devices or modes their work had a massive effect on rhetorical studies of the european renaissance and as a result western civilization and are thus considered the direct precursor to modern western rhetoric under the broad label classical rhetoric ancient india edit further information ancient indian rhetoric india s struggle for independence offers a vivid description of the culture that sprang up around the newspaper in village india of the early 1870s a newspaper would reach remote villages and would then be read by a reader to tens of others gradually library movements sprung up all over the country a local library would be organized around a single newspaper a table a bench or two or a charpoy would constitute the capital equipment every piece of news or editorial comment would be read or heard and thoroughly discussed the newspaper not only became the political educator reading or discussing it became a form of political participation 81 this reading and discussion was the focal point of origin of the modern indian rhetorical movement much before this ancients such as kautilya birbal and the like indulged in a great deal of discussion and persuasion keith lloyd argued that much of the recital of the vedas can be likened to the recital of ancient greek poetry 82 lloyd proposed including the nyāya sūtras in the field of rhetorical studies exploring its methods within their historical context comparing its approach to the traditional logical syllogism and relating it to modern perspectives of stephen toulmin kenneth burke and chaim perelman nyaya is a sanskrit word which means just or right and refers to the science of right and wrong reasoning 83 356 sutra is also a sanskrit word which means string or thread here sutra refers to a collection of aphorism in the form of a manual each sutra is a short rule usually consisted of one or two sentences an example of a sutra is reality is truth and what is true is so irrespective of whether we know it is or are aware of that truth the nyāya sūtras is an ancient indian sanskrit text composed by aksapada gautama it is the foundational text of the nyaya school of hindu philosophy it is estimated that the text was composed between 6th century bce and 2nd century ce the text may have been composed by more than one author over a period of time 84 radhakrishan and moore placed its origin in the third century bce though some of the contents of the nyaya sutra are certainly a post christian era 83 36 the ancient school of nyaya extended over a period of one thousand years beginning with gautama about 550 bce and ending with vatsyayana about 400 ce 85 nyaya provides insight into indian rhetoric nyaya presents an argumentative approach with which a rhetor can decide about any argument ...