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lish often included some study of greek and placed considerable emphasis on rhetoric 91 the mid 16th century saw the rise of vernacular rhetorics those written in english rather than in the classical languages adoption of works in english was slow however due to the strong scholastic orientation toward latin and greek leonard cox s the art or crafte of rhetoryke c 1524 1530 second edition published in 1532 is the earliest text on rhetorics in english it was for the most part a translation of the work of philipp melanchthon 92 thomas wilson s the arte of rhetorique 1553 presents a traditional treatment of rhetoric for instance the standard five canons of rhetoric other notable works included angel day s the english secretorie 1586 1592 george puttenham s the arte of english poesie 1589 and richard rainholde s foundacion of rhetorike 1563 during this same period a movement began that would change the organization of the school curriculum in protestant and especially puritan circles and that led to rhetoric losing its central place a french scholar petrus ramus 1515 1572 dissatisfied with what he saw as the overly broad and redundant organization of the trivium proposed a new curriculum in his scheme of things the five components of rhetoric no longer lived under the common heading of rhetoric instead invention and disposition were determined to fall exclusively under the heading of dialectic while style delivery and memory were all that remained for rhetoric 93 ramus was martyred during the french wars of religion his teachings seen as inimical to catholicism were short lived in france but found a fertile ground in the netherlands germany and england 94 one of ramus french followers audomarus talaeus omer talon published his rhetoric institutiones oratoriae in 1544 this work emphasized style and became so popular that it was mentioned in john brinsley s 1612 ludus literarius or the grammar schoole as being the most used in the best schooles many other ramist rhetorics followed in the next half century and by the 17th century their approach became the primary method of teaching rhetoric in protestant and especially puritan circles 95 john milton 1608 1674 wrote a textbook in logic or dialectic in latin based on ramus work 96 ramism could not exert any influence on the established catholic schools and universities which remained loyal to scholasticism or on the new catholic schools and universities founded by members of the society of jesus or the oratorians as can be seen in the jesuit curriculum in use up to the 19th century across the christian world known as the ratio studiorum 97 if the influence of cicero and quintilian permeates the ratio studiorum it is through the lenses of devotion and the militancy of the counter reformation the ratio was indeed imbued with a sense of the divine of the incarnate logos that is of rhetoric as an eloquent and humane means to reach further devotion and further action in the christian city which was absent from ramist formalism the ratio is in rhetoric the answer to ignatius loyola s practice in devotion of spiritual exercises this complex oratorical prayer system is absent from ramism seventeenth century edit in new england and at harvard college founded 1636 ramus and his followers dominated 98 page needed however in england several writers influenced the course of rhetoric during the 17th century many of them carrying forward the dichotomy specify that had been set forth by ramus and his followers during the preceding decades this century also saw the development of a modern vernacular style that looked to english rather than to greek latin or french models francis bacon 1561 1626 although not a rhetorician contributed to the field in his writings one of the concerns of the age was to find a suitable style for the discussion of scientific topics which needed above all a clear exposition of facts and arguments rather than an ornate style bacon in his the advancement of learning criticized those who are preoccupied with style rather than the weight of matter worth of subject soundness of argument life of invention or depth of judgment 99 on matters of style he proposed that the style conform to the subject matter and to the audience that simple words be employed whenever possible and that the style should be agreeable 100 page needed thomas hobbes 1588 1679 also wrote on rhetoric along with a shortened translation of aristotle s rhetoric hobbes also produced a number of other works on the subject sharply contrarian on many subjects hobbes like bacon also promoted a simpler and more natural style that used figures of speech sparingly perhaps the most influential development in english style came out of the work of the royal society founded in 1660 which in 1664 set up a committee to improve the english language among the committee s members were john evelyn 1620 1706 thomas sprat 1635 1713 and john dryden 1631 1700 sprat regarded fine speaking as a disease and thought that a proper style should reject all amplifications digressions and swellings of style and instead return back to a primitive purity and shortness 101 while the work of this committee never went beyond planning john dryden is often credited with creating and exemplifying a new and modern english style his central tenet was that the style should be proper to the occasion the subject and the persons 102 as such he advocated the use of english words whenever possible instead of foreign ones as well as vernacular rather than latinate syntax his own prose and his poetry became exemplars of this new style eighteenth century edit arguably one of the most influential schools of rhetoric during the 18th century was scottish belletristic rhetoric exemplified by such professors of rhetoric as hugh blair whose lectures on rhetoric and belles lettres saw international success in various editions and translations and lord kames with his influential elements of criticism another notable figure in 18th century rhetoric was maria edgeworth a novelist and children s author whose work often parodied the male centric rhetorical strategies of her time in her 1795 an essay on the noble science of self justification edgeworth presents a satire of enlightenment rhetoric s science centrism and the belletristic movement 103 she was called the great maria by sir walter scott with whom she corresponded 104 and by modern scholars is noted as a transgressive and ironic reader of the 18th century rhetorical norms 105 modern edit at the turn of the 20th century there was a revival of rhetorical study manifested in the establishment of departments of rhetoric and speech at academic institutions as well as the formation of national and international professional organizations 106 the early interest in rhetorical studies was a movement away from elocution as taught in english departments in the united states and an attempt to refocus rhetorical studies from delivery only to civic engagement and a rich complexity of the nature of rhetoric 107 by the 1930s advances in mass media technology led to a revival of the study of rhetoric language persuasion and political rhetoric and its consequences the linguistic turn in philosophy also contributed to this revival the term rhetoric came to be applied to media forms other than verbal language e g visual rhetoric temporal rhetorics 108 and the temporal turn 109 in rhetorical theory and practice the rise of advertising and of mass media such as photography telegraphy radio and film brought rhetoric more prominently into people s lives the discipline of rhetoric has been used to study how advertising persuades 110 and to help understand the spread of fake news and conspiracy theories on social media 111 notable theorists edit kenneth burke burke was a rhetorical theorist philosopher and poet many of his works are central to modern rhetorical theory counterstatement 1931 a grammar of motives 1945 a rhetoric of motives 1950 and language as symbolic action 1966 among his influential concepts are identification consubstantiality and the dramatistic pentad he described rhetoric as the use of language as a symbolic means of inducing cooperation in beings that by nature respond to symbols 112 in relation to aristotle s theory aristotle was more interested in constructing rhetoric while burke was interested in debunking it the groupe μ this interdisciplinary team contributed to the renovation of the elocutio in the context of poetics and modern linguistics significantly with rhétorique générale 113 and rhétorique de la poésie 1977 marshall mcluhan mcluhan was a media theorist whose theories and whose choice of objects of study are important to the study of rhetoric mcluhan s book the mechanical bride 114 was a compilation of exhibits of ads and other materials from popular culture with short essays involving rhetorical analyses of the persuasive strategies in each item mcluhan later shifted the focus of his rhetorical analysis and began to consider how communication media themselves affect us as persuasive devices his famous dictum the medium is the message highlights the significance of the medium itself this shift in focus led to his two most widely known books the gutenberg galaxy 115 and understanding media 116 these books represent an inward turn to attending to one s consciousness in contrast to the more outward orientation of other rhetoricians toward sociological considerations and symbolic interaction no other scholar of the history and theory of rhetoric was as widely publicized in the 20th century as mcluhan chaïm perelman perelman was among the most important argumentation theorists of the 20th century his chief work is the traité de l argumentation la nouvelle rhétorique 1958 with lucie olbrechts tyteca which was translated into english as the new rhetoric a treatise on argumentation 117 perelman and olbrechts tyteca move rhetoric from the periphery to the center of argumentation theory among their most influential concepts are dissociation the universal audience quasi logical argument and presence i a richards richards was a literary critic and rhetorician his the philosophy of rhetoric is an important text in modern rhetorical theory 118 in this work he defined rhetoric as a study of misunderstandings and its remedies and introduced the influential concepts tenor and vehicle to describe the components of a metaphor the main idea and the concept to which it is compared 118 97 stephen toulmin toulmin was a philosopher whose uses of argument is an important text in modern rhetorical theory and argumentation theory 119 richard m weaver weaver was a rhetorical and cultural critic known for his contributions to the new conservatism he focused on the ethical implications of rhetoric in his books language is sermonic and the ethics of rhetoric according to weaver there are four types of argument and through the argument type a rhetorician habitually uses a critic can discern their worldview those who prefer the argument from genus or definition are idealists those who argue from similitude such as poets and religious people see the connectedness between things the argument from consequence sees a cause and effect relationship finally the argument from circumstance considers the particulars of a situation and is an argument preferred by liberals methods of analysis edit criticism seen as a method edit rhetoric can be analyzed by a variety of methods and theories one such method is criticism when those using criticism analyze instances of rhetoric what they do is called rhetorical criticism see criticism according to rhetorical critic jim a kuypers the use of rhetoric is an art and as such it does not lend itself well to scientific methods of analysis criticism is an art as well and as such is particularly well suited for examining rhetorical creations 120 14 he asserts that criticism is a method of generating knowledge just as the scientific method is a method for generating knowledge 120 the way the sciences and the humanities study the phenomena that surround us differ greatly in the amount of researcher personality allowed to influence the results of the study for example in the sciences researchers purposefully adhere to a strict method the scientific method generally speaking the researcher s personality likes and dislikes and religious and political preferences are supposed to be as far removed as possible from the actual study in sharp contrast criticism one of many humanistic methods of generating knowledge actively involves the personality of the researcher the very choices of what to study and how and why to study a rhetorical artifact are heavily influenced by the personal qualities of the researcher in the humanities methods of research may also take many forms criticism ethnography for example but the personality of the researcher is an integral component of the study further personalizing criticism we find that rhetorical critics use a variety of means when examining a particular rhetorical artifact with some critics even developing their own unique perspective to better examine a rhetorical artifact 120 14 jim a kuypers edwin black wrote on this point that methods then admit of varying degrees of personality and criticism on the whole is near the indeterminate contingent personal end of the methodological scale in consequence of this placement it is neither possible nor desirable for criticism to be fixed into a system for critical techniques to be objectified for critics to be interchangeable for purposes of replication or for rhetorical criticism to serve as the handmaiden of quasi scientific theory 121 xi jim a kuypers sums this idea of criticism as art in the following manner in short criticism is an art not a science it is not a scientific method it uses subjective methods of argument it exists on its own not in conjunction with other methods of generating knowledge i e social scientific or scientific i nsight and imagination top statistical applications when studying rhetorical action 120 14 15 strategies edit rhetorical strategies are the efforts made by authors or speakers to persuade or inform their audiences according to james w gray importance there are various argument strategies used in writing he describes four of these as argument from analogy argument from absurdity thought experiments and inference to the best explanation 122 criticism edit modern rhetorical criticism explores the relationship between text and context that is how an instance of rhetoric relates to circumstances since the aim of rhetoric is to be persuasive the level to which the rhetoric in question persuades its audience is what must be analyzed and later criticized in determining the extent to which a text is persuasive one may explore the text s relationship with its audience purpose ethics argument evidence arrangement delivery and style 123 in his rhetorical criticism a study in method edwin black states ...