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ence edit xenotime crystals contain yttrium abundance edit yttrium is found in most rare earth minerals 15 and some uranium ores but never in the earth s crust as a free element 54 about 31 ppm of the earth s crust is yttrium 10 making it the 43rd most abundant element 55 615 yttrium is found in soil in concentrations between 10 and 150 ppm dry weight average of 23 ppm and in sea water at 9 ppt 55 lunar rock samples collected during the american apollo project have a relatively high content of yttrium 50 yttrium is not considered a bone seeker like strontium and lead 56 normally as little as 0 5 milligrams 0 0077 gr is found in the entire human body human breast milk contains 4 ppm 57 yttrium can be found in edible plants in concentrations between 20 ppm and 100 ppm fresh weight with cabbage having the largest amount 57 with as much as 700 ppm the seeds of woody plants have the highest known concentrations 57 as of april 2018 update there are reports of the discovery of very large reserves of rare earth elements in the deep seabed several hundred kilometers from the tiny japanese island of minami torishima island also known as marcus island 58 this location is described as having tremendous potential for rare earth elements and yttrium rey according to a study published in scientific reports 59 this rey rich mud has great potential as a rare earth metal resource because of the enormous amount available and its advantageous mineralogical features the study reads the study shows that more than 16 million short tons 15 billion kilograms of rare earth elements could be exploited in the near future as well as yttrium y which is used in products like camera lenses and mobile phone screens the rare earth elements found are europium eu terbium tb and dysprosium dy 60 production edit as yttrium is chemically similar to lanthanides it occurs in the same ores rare earth minerals and is extracted by the same refinement processes 61 a slight distinction is recognized between the light lree and the heavy rare earth elements hree but the distinction is not perfect yttrium is concentrated in the hree group due to its ion size though it has a lower atomic mass 62 63 a piece of yttrium yttrium is difficult to separate from other rare earth elements rare earth elements rees come mainly from four sources 64 carbonate and fluoride containing ores such as the lree bastnäsite ce la etc co 3 f contain on average 0 1 18 62 yttrium compared to the 99 9 for the 16 other rees 62 the main source of bastnäsite from the 1960s to the 1990s was the mountain pass rare earth mine in california making the united states the largest producer of rees during that period 62 64 the name bastnäsite is actually a group name and the levinson suffix is used in the correct mineral names e g bästnasite y has y as a prevailing element 65 66 67 monazite ce la etc po 4 which is mostly phosphate is a placer deposit of sand created by the transportation and gravitational separation of eroded granite monazite as a lree ore contains 2 62 or 3 68 yttrium the largest deposits were found in india and brazil in the early 20th century making those two countries the largest producers of yttrium in the first half of that century 62 64 of the monazite group the ce dominant member monazite ce is the most common one 69 xenotime a ree phosphate is the main hree ore containing as much as 60 yttrium as yttrium phosphate ypo 4 62 this applies to xenotime y 67 70 66 the largest mine is the bayan obo deposit in china making china the largest exporter for hree since the closure of the mountain pass mine in the 1990s 62 64 ion absorption clays or longnan clays are the weathering products of granite and contain only 1 of rees 62 the final ore concentrate can contain as much as 8 yttrium ion absorption clays are mostly in southern china 62 64 71 yttrium is also found in samarskite and fergusonite which also stand for group names 55 one method for obtaining pure yttrium from the mixed oxide ores is to dissolve the oxide in sulfuric acid and fractionate it by ion exchange chromatography 72 with the addition of oxalic acid the yttrium oxalate precipitates the oxalate is converted into the oxide by heating under oxygen by reacting the resulting yttrium oxide with hydrogen fluoride yttrium fluoride is obtained 73 when quaternary ammonium salts are used as extractants most yttrium will remain in the aqueous phase when the counter ion is nitrate the light lanthanides are removed and when the counter ion is thiocyanate the heavy lanthanides are removed in this way yttrium salts of 99 999 purity are obtained in the usual situation where yttrium is in a mixture that is two thirds heavy lanthanide yttrium should be removed as soon as possible to facilitate the separation of the remaining elements annual world production of yttrium oxide had reached 600 tonnes 660 short tons by 2001 by 2014 it had increased to 6 400 tonnes 7 000 short tons 55 74 global reserves of yttrium oxide were estimated in 2014 to be more than 450 000 tonnes 500 000 short tons the leading countries for these reserves included australia brazil china india and the united states 74 only a few tonnes of yttrium metal are produced each year by reducing yttrium fluoride to a metal sponge with calcium magnesium alloy the temperature of an arc furnace in excess of 1 600 c is sufficient to melt the yttrium 55 73 applications edit phosphor edit yttrium is one of the elements that was used to make the red color in crt televisions the red component of color television cathode ray tubes is typically emitted from an yttria y 2 o 3 or yttrium oxide sulfide y 2 o 2 s host lattice doped with europium iii cation eu 3 phosphors 18 10 i the red color itself is emitted from the europium while the yttrium collects energy from the electron gun and passes it to the phosphor 75 yttrium compounds can serve as host lattices for doping with different lanthanide cations tb 3 can be used as a doping agent to produce green luminescence as such yttrium compounds such as yttrium aluminium garnet yag are useful for phosphors and are an important component of white leds 76 garnets edit nd yag laser rod 0 5 cm 0 20 in in diameter yttrium is used in the production of a large variety of synthetic garnets 77 and yttria is used to make yttrium iron garnets y 3 fe 5 o 12 yig which are very effective microwave filters 18 yttrium iron aluminium and gadolinium garnets e g y 3 fe al 5 o 12 and y 3 fe gd 5 o 12 have important magnetic properties 18 78 yig is also very efficient as an acoustic energy transmitter and transducer 79 yttrium aluminium garnet y 3 al 5 o 12 or yag has a hardness of 8 5 and is also used as a gemstone in jewelry simulated diamond 18 cerium doped yttrium aluminium garnet yag ce crystals are used as phosphors to make white leds 80 81 82 yag yttria yttrium lithium fluoride liyf 4 and yttrium orthovanadate yvo 4 are used in combination with dopants such as neodymium erbium ytterbium in near infrared lasers 83 84 yag lasers can operate at high power and are used for drilling and cutting metal 68 the single crystals of doped yag are normally produced by the czochralski process 85 material enhancer edit small amounts of yttrium 0 1 to 0 2 have been used to reduce the grain sizes of chromium molybdenum titanium and zirconium 86 yttrium is used to increase the strength of aluminium and magnesium alloys 18 the addition of yttrium to alloys generally improves workability adds resistance to high temperature recrystallization and significantly enhances resistance to high temperature oxidation see graphite nodule discussion below 75 yttrium can be used to deoxidize vanadium and other non ferrous metals 18 yttria stabilizes the cubic form of zirconia in jewelry 87 yttrium has been studied as a nodulizer in ductile cast iron forming the graphite into compact nodules instead of flakes to increase ductility and fatigue resistance 18 having a high melting point yttrium oxide is used in some ceramic and glass to impart shock resistance and low thermal expansion properties 18 those same properties make such glass useful in camera lenses 55 medical edit the radioisotope yttrium 90 90 y is used to label drugs such as edotreotide and ibritumomab tiuxetan for the treatment of various cancers including lymphoma leukemia liver ovarian colorectal pancreatic and bone cancers 57 it works by adhering to monoclonal antibodies which in turn bind to cancer cells and kill them via intense β radiation from the 90 y see monoclonal antibody therapy 88 a technique called radioembolization is used to treat hepatocellular carcinoma and liver metastasis 89 radioembolization is a low toxicity targeted liver cancer therapy that uses millions of tiny beads made of glass or resin containing 90 y the radioactive microspheres are delivered directly to the blood vessels feeding specific liver tumors segments or lobes it is minimally invasive and patients can usually be discharged after a few hours this procedure may not eliminate all tumors throughout the entire liver but works on one segment or one lobe at a time and may require multiple procedures 90 also see radioembolization in the case of combined cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma needles made of 90 y which can cut more precisely than scalpels have been used to sever pain transmitting nerves in the spinal cord 38 and 90 y is also used to carry out radionuclide synovectomy in the treatment of inflamed joints especially knees in people with conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis 91 a neodymium doped yttrium aluminium garnet laser has been used in an experimental robot assisted radical prostatectomy in canines in an attempt to reduce collateral nerve and tissue damage 92 and erbium doped lasers are coming into use for cosmetic skin resurfacing 10 superconductors edit main article high temperature superconductor a ybco superconductor yttrium is a key ingredient in the yttrium barium copper oxide yba 2 cu 3 o 7 aka ybco or 1 2 3 superconductor developed at the university of alabama in huntsville and the university of houston in 1987 53 this superconductor is notable because the operating superconductivity temperature is above liquid nitrogen s boiling point 77 1 k 53 since liquid nitrogen is less expensive than the liquid helium required for metallic superconductors the operating costs for applications would be less 93 the actual superconducting material is often written as yba 2 cu 3 o 7 d where d must be less than 0 7 for superconductivity the reason for this is still not clear but it is known that the vacancies occur only in certain places in the crystal the copper oxide planes and chains giving rise to a peculiar oxidation state of the copper atoms which somehow leads to the superconducting behavior 94 other applications edit in 2009 professor mas subramanian and associates at oregon state university discovered that yttrium can be combined with indium and manganese to form an intensely blue non toxic inert fade resistant pigment yinmn blue the first new blue pigment discovered in 200 years 95 yttria is used as a sintering additive in the production of porous silicon nitride 96 yttrium compounds are used as a catalyst for ethylene polymerization 18 as a metal yttrium is used on the electrodes of some high performance spark plugs 97 yttrium is used in gas mantles for propane lanterns as a replacement for thorium which is radioactive 98 precautions edit yttrium can be highly toxic to humans animals and plants 11 water soluble compounds of yttrium are considered mildly toxic while its insoluble compounds are non toxic 57 in experiments on animals yttrium and its compounds caused lung and liver damage though toxicity varies with different yttrium compounds in rats inhalation of yttrium citrate caused pulmonary edema and dyspnea while inhalation of yttrium chloride caused liver edema pleural effusions and pulmonary hyperemia 11 exposure to yttrium compounds in humans may cause lung disease 11 workers exposed to airborne yttrium europium vanadate dust experienced mild eye skin and upper respiratory tract irritation though this may be caused by the vanadium content rather than the yttrium 11 acute exposure to yttrium compounds can cause shortness of breath coughing chest pain and cyanosis 11 the occupational safety and health administration osha limits exposure to yttrium in the workplace to 1 mg m 3 5 8 10 10 oz cu in over an 8 hour workday the national institute for occupational safety and health niosh recommended exposure limit rel is 1 mg m 3 5 8 10 10 oz cu in over an 8 hour workday at levels of 500 mg m 3 2 9 10 7 oz cu in yttrium is immediately dangerous to life and health 99 yttrium dust is highly flammable 11 notes edit the thermal expansion is anisotropic the parameters at 20 c for each crystal axis are α a 7 42 10 6 k α c 18 80 10 6 k and α average α v 3 11 21 10 6 k 3 essentially a neutron becomes a proton while an electron and antineutrino are emitted see magic number metastable isomers have higher than normal energy states than the corresponding non excited nucleus and these states last until a gamma ray or conversion electron is emitted from the isomer they are designated by an m being placed next to the isotope s mass number ytterbite was named after the village it was discovered near plus the ite ending to indicate it was a mineral stwertka 1998 p 115 says that the identification occurred in 1789 but is silent on when the announcement was made van der krogt 2005 cites the original publication with the year 1794 by gadolin earths were given an a ending and new elements are normally given an ium ending t c for ybco is 93 k and the boiling point of nitrogen is 77 k emsley 2001 p 497 says that yttrium oxysulfide doped with europium iii was used as the standard red component in colour televisions and jackson and christiansen 1993 state that 5 10 g yttrium oxide and 0 5 1 g europium oxide were required to produce a single tv screen as quoted in gupta and krishnamurthy references edit standard atomic weights yttrium ciaaw 2021 prohaska thomas irrgeher johanna benefield jacqueline böhlke john k chesson lesley a coplen tyler b ding tiping dunn philip j h gröning manfred holden norman e meijer harro a j 2022 05 04 standard atomic weights of the elements 2021 iupac technical report pure and applied chemistry doi 10 1515 pac 2019 0603 issn 1365 3075 1 2 3 4 arblaster john w 2018 selected values of the crystallographic properties of elements materials park ohio asm international isbn 978 1 62708 155 9 1 2 yttrium and all lanthanides except ce pm tm and yb have been observed in the oxidation state 0 in bis 1 3 5 tri t butylbenzene complexes see cloke f geoffrey n 1993 zero oxidation state compounds of scandium yttrium and the lanthanides chem soc rev 22 17 24 doi 10 1039 cs9932200017 and arnold polly l petrukhina marina a bochenkov vladimir e shabatina tatyana i zagorskii vyacheslav v cloke 2003 12 15 arene complexation of sm eu tm and y...