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pinus glabra 12 00 440 39 72 sugar pine pinus lambertiana green 340 17 34 sugar pine pinus lambertiana 12 00 360 30 8 57 virginia pine pinus virginiana green 450 23 6 50 virginia pine pinus virginiana 12 00 480 46 3 90 western white pine pinus monticola green 360 16 8 32 western white pine pinus monticola 12 00 380 34 7 67 redwood old growth sequoia sempervirens green 380 29 52 redwood old growth sequoia sempervirens 12 00 400 42 4 69 redwood new growth sequoia sempervirens green 340 21 4 41 redwood new growth sequoia sempervirens 12 00 350 36 54 black spruce picea mariana green 380 19 6 42 black spruce picea mariana 12 00 460 41 1 74 engelmann spruce picea engelmannii green 330 15 32 engelmann spruce picea engelmannii 12 00 350 30 9 64 red spruce picea rubens green 370 18 8 41 red spruce picea rubens 12 00 400 38 2 74 sitka spruce picea sitchensis green 330 16 2 34 sitka spruce picea sitchensis 12 00 360 35 7 65 white spruce picea glauca green 370 17 7 39 white spruce picea glauca 12 00 400 37 7 68 tamarack spruce larix laricina green 490 24 50 tamarack spruce larix laricina 12 00 530 49 4 80 bamboo properties 35 34 common name scientific name moisture content density kg m 3 compressive strength megapascals flexural strength megapascals balku bans bambusa balcooa green 45 73 7 balku bans bambusa balcooa air dry 54 15 81 1 balku bans bambusa balcooa 8 5 820 69 151 indian thorny bamboo bambusa bambos 9 5 710 61 143 indian thorny bamboo bambusa bambos 43 05 37 15 nodding bamboo bambusa nutans 8 890 75 52 9 nodding bamboo bambusa nutans 87 46 52 4 nodding bamboo bambusa nutans 12 85 67 5 nodding bamboo bambusa nutans 88 3 44 7 88 nodding bamboo bambusa nutans 14 47 9 216 clumping bamboo bambusa pervariabilis 45 8 clumping bamboo bambusa pervariabilis 5 79 80 clumping bamboo bambusa pervariabilis 20 35 37 burmese bamboo bambusa polymorpha 95 1 32 1 28 3 bambusa spinosa air dry 57 51 77 indian timber bamboo bambusa tulda 73 6 40 7 51 1 indian timber bamboo bambusa tulda 11 9 68 66 7 indian timber bamboo bambusa tulda 8 6 910 79 194 dragon bamboo dendrocalamus giganteus 8 740 70 193 hamilton s bamboo dendrocalamus hamiltonii 8 5 590 70 89 white bamboo dendrocalamus membranaceus 102 40 5 26 3 string bamboo gigantochloa apus 54 3 24 1 102 string bamboo gigantochloa apus 15 1 37 95 87 5 java black bamboo gigantochloa atroviolacea 54 23 8 92 3 java black bamboo gigantochloa atroviolacea 15 35 7 94 1 giant atter gigantochloa atter 72 3 26 4 98 giant atter gigantochloa atter 14 4 31 95 122 7 gigantochloa macrostachya 8 960 71 154 american narrow leaved bamboo guadua angustifolia 42 53 5 american narrow leaved bamboo guadua angustifolia 63 6 144 8 american narrow leaved bamboo guadua angustifolia 86 3 46 american narrow leaved bamboo guadua angustifolia 77 5 82 american narrow leaved bamboo guadua angustifolia 15 56 87 american narrow leaved bamboo guadua angustifolia 63 3 american narrow leaved bamboo guadua angustifolia 28 american narrow leaved bamboo guadua angustifolia 56 2 american narrow leaved bamboo guadua angustifolia 38 berry bamboo melocanna baccifera 12 8 69 9 57 6 japanese timber bamboo phyllostachys bambusoides 51 japanese timber bamboo phyllostachys bambusoides 8 730 63 japanese timber bamboo phyllostachys bambusoides 64 44 japanese timber bamboo phyllostachys bambusoides 61 40 japanese timber bamboo phyllostachys bambusoides 9 71 japanese timber bamboo phyllostachys bambusoides 9 74 japanese timber bamboo phyllostachys bambusoides 12 54 tortoise shell bamboo phyllostachys edulis 44 6 tortoise shell bamboo phyllostachys edulis 75 67 tortoise shell bamboo phyllostachys edulis 15 71 tortoise shell bamboo phyllostachys edulis 6 108 tortoise shell bamboo phyllostachys edulis 0 2 147 tortoise shell bamboo phyllostachys edulis 5 117 51 tortoise shell bamboo phyllostachys edulis 30 44 55 tortoise shell bamboo phyllostachys edulis 12 5 603 60 3 tortoise shell bamboo phyllostachys edulis 10 3 530 83 early bamboo phyllostachys praecox 28 5 827 79 3 oliveri thyrsostachys oliveri 53 46 9 61 9 oliveri thyrsostachys oliveri 7 8 58 90 hard versus soft it is common to classify wood as either softwood or hardwood the wood from conifers e g pine is called softwood and the wood from dicotyledons usually broad leaved trees e g oak is called hardwood these names are somewhat misleading as hardwoods are not necessarily hard and softwoods are not necessarily soft the well known balsa a hardwood is actually softer than any commercial softwood conversely some softwoods e g yew are harder than many hardwoods there is a strong relationship between the properties of wood and the properties of the particular tree that yielded it at least for certain species for example in loblolly pine wind exposure and stem position greatly affect the hardness of wood as well as compression wood content 36 the density of wood varies with species the density of a wood correlates with its strength mechanical properties for example mahogany is a medium dense hardwood that is excellent for fine furniture crafting whereas balsa is light making it useful for model building one of the densest woods is black ironwood chemistry chemical structure of lignin which makes up about 25 of wood dry matter and is responsible for many of its properties the chemical composition of wood varies from species to species but is approximately 50 carbon 42 oxygen 6 hydrogen 1 nitrogen and 1 other elements mainly calcium potassium sodium magnesium iron and manganese by weight 37 wood also contains sulfur chlorine silicon phosphorus and other elements in small quantity aside from water wood has three main components cellulose a crystalline polymer derived from glucose constitutes about 41 43 next in abundance is hemicellulose which is around 20 in deciduous trees but near 30 in conifers it is mainly five carbon sugars that are linked in an irregular manner in contrast to the cellulose lignin is the third component at around 27 in coniferous wood vs 23 in deciduous trees lignin confers the hydrophobic properties reflecting the fact that it is based on aromatic rings these three components are interwoven and direct covalent linkages exist between the lignin and the hemicellulose a major focus of the paper industry is the separation of the lignin from the cellulose from which paper is made in chemical terms the difference between hardwood and softwood is reflected in the composition of the constituent lignin hardwood lignin is primarily derived from sinapyl alcohol and coniferyl alcohol softwood lignin is mainly derived from coniferyl alcohol 38 extractives aside from the structural polymers i e cellulose hemicellulose and lignin lignocellulose wood contains a large variety of non structural constituents composed of low molecular weight organic compounds called extractives these compounds are present in the extracellular space and can be extracted from the wood using different neutral solvents such as acetone 39 analogous content is present in the so called exudate produced by trees in response to mechanical damage or after being attacked by insects or fungi 40 unlike the structural constituents the composition of extractives varies over wide ranges and depends on many factors 41 the amount and composition of extractives differs between tree species various parts of the same tree and depends on genetic factors and growth conditions such as climate and geography 39 for example slower growing trees and higher parts of trees have higher content of extractives generally the softwood is richer in extractives than the hardwood their concentration increases from the cambium to the pith barks and branches also contain extractives although extractives represent a small fraction of the wood content usually less than 10 they are extraordinarily diverse and thus characterize the chemistry of the wood species 42 most extractives are secondary metabolites and some of them serve as precursors to other chemicals wood extractives display different activities some of them are produced in response to wounds and some of them participate in natural defense against insects and fungi 43 44 forchem tall oil refinery in rauma finland these compounds contribute to various physical and chemical properties of the wood such as wood color fragnance durability acoustic properties hygroscopicity adhesion and drying 42 considering these impacts wood extractives also affect the properties of pulp and paper and importantly cause many problems in paper industry some extractives are surface active substances and unavoidably affect the surface properties of paper such as water adsorption friction and strength 39 lipophilic extractives often give rise to sticky deposits during kraft pulping and may leave spots on paper extractives also account for paper smell which is important when making food contact materials most wood extractives are lipophilic and only a little part is water soluble 40 the lipophilic portion of extractives which is collectively referred as wood resin contains fats and fatty acids sterols and steryl esters terpenes terpenoids resin acids and waxes 45 the heating of resin i e distillation vaporizes the volatile terpenes and leaves the solid component rosin the concentrated liquid of volatile compounds extracted during steam distillation is called essential oil distillation of oleoresin obtained from many pines provides rosin and turpentine 46 most extractives can be categorized into three groups aliphatic compounds terpenes and phenolic compounds 39 the latter are more water soluble and usually are absent in the resin aliphatic compounds include fatty acids fatty alcohols and their esters with glycerol fatty alcohols waxes and sterols steryl esters hydrocarbons such as alkanes are also present in the wood suberin is a polyester made of suberin acids and glycerol mainly found in barks fats serve as a source of energy for the wood cells 40 the most common wood sterol is sitosterol and less commonly sitostanol citrostadienol campesterol or cholesterol 39 the main terpenes occurring in the softwood include mono sesqui and diterpenes 40 meanwhile the terpene composition of the hardwood is considerably different consisting of triterpenoids polyprenols and other higher terpenes examples of mono di and sesquiterpenes are α and β pinenes 3 carene β myrcene limonene thujaplicins α and β phellandrenes α muurolene δ cadinene α and δ cadinols α and β cedrenes juniperol longifolene cis abienol borneol pinifolic acid nootkatin chanootin phytol geranyl linalool β epimanool manoyloxide pimaral and pimarol resin acids are usually tricyclic terpenoids examples of which are pimaric acid sandaracopimaric acid isopimaric acid abietic acid levopimaric acid palustric acid neoabietic acid and dehydroabietic acid bicyclic resin acids are also found such as lambertianic acid communic acid mercusic acid and secodehydroabietic acid cycloartenol betulin and squalene are triterpenoids purified from hardwood examples of wood polyterpenes are rubber cis polypren gutta percha trans polypren gutta balatá trans polypren and betulaprenols acyclic polyterpenoids 39 40 the mono and sesquiterpenes of the softwood are responsible for the typical smell of pine forest 39 many monoterpenoids such as β myrcene are used in the preparation of flavors and fragrances 40 tropolones such as hinokitiol and other thujaplicins are present in decay resistant trees and display fungicidal and insecticidal properties tropolones strongly bind metal ions and can cause digester corrosion in the process kraft pulping owing to their metal binding and ionophoric properties especially thujaplicins are used in physiology experiments 47 different other in vitro biological activities of thujaplicins have been studied such as insecticidal anti browning anti viral anti bacterial anti fungal anti proliferative and anti oxidant 48 49 phenolic compounds are especially found in the hardwood and the bark 40 the most well known wood phenolic constituents are stilbenes e g pinosylvin lignans e g pinoresinol conidendrin plicatic acid hydroxymatairesinol norlignans e g nyasol puerosides a and b hydroxysugiresinol sequirin c tannins e g gallic acid ellagic acid flavonoids e g chrysin taxifolin catechin genistein most of the phenolic compounds have fungicidal properties and protect the wood from fungal decay 40 together with the neolignans the phenolic compounds influence on the color of the wood resin acids and phenolic compounds are the main toxic contaminants present in the untreated effluents from pulping 39 polyphenolic compounds are one of the most abundant biomolecules produced by plants such as flavonoids and tannins tannins are used in leather industry and have shown to exhibit different biological activities 42 flavonoids are very diverse widely distributed in the plant kingdom and have numerous biological activities and roles 40 uses main global producers of roundwood by type world production of roundwood by type production main article forestry global production of roundwood rose from 3 5 billion m ³ in 2000 to 4 billion m ³ in 2021 in 2021 wood fuel was the main product with a 49 percent share of the total 2 billion m ³ followed by coniferous industrial roundwood with 30 percent 1 2 billion m ³ and non coniferous industrial roundwood with 21 percent 0 9 billion m ³ asia and the americas are the two main producing regions accounting for 29 and 28 percent of the total roundwood production respectively africa and europe have similar shares of 20 21 percent while oceania produces the remaining 2 percent 50 fuel main article wood fuel wood has a long history of being used as fuel 51 which continues to this day mostly in rural areas of the world hardwood is preferred over softwood because it creates less smoke and burns longer adding a woodstove or fireplace to a home is often felt to add ambiance and warmth many lower and middle income countries rely on wood for energy purposes especially cooking pulpwood pulpwood is wood that is raised specifically for use in making paper construction the saitta house dyker heights brooklyn new york built in 1899 is made of and decorated in wood 52 map of importers and exporters of forest products including wood in 2021 wood has been an important construction material since humans began building shelters houses and boats nearly all boats were made out of wood until the late 19th century and wood remains in common use today in boat construction elm in particular was used for this purpose as it resisted decay as long as it was kept wet it also served for water pipe before the advent of more modern plumbing wood to be used for construction work is commonly known as lumber in north america elsewhere lumber usually refers to felled trees and the word for sawn planks ready for use is timber 53 in medieval europe oak was the wood of choice for all wood construction including beams walls doors and floors today a wider variety of woods is used so...
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