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ent with the latin rex byzantine period emperors also used the greek word autokrator meaning one who rules himself or monarch which was traditionally used by greek writers to translate the latin dictator essentially the greek language did not incorporate the nuances of the ancient roman concepts that distinguished imperium from other forms of political power in general usage the byzantine imperial title evolved from simply emperor basileus to emperor of the romans basileus tōn rōmaiōn in the 9th century to emperor and autocrat of the romans basileus kai autokratōr tōn rōmaiōn in the 10th 4 in fact none of these and other additional epithets and titles had ever been completely discarded one important distinction between the post constantine i reigned ad 306 337 emperors and their pagan predecessors was cesaropapism the assertion that the emperor or other head of state is also the head of the church although this principle was held by all emperors after constantine it met with increasing resistance and ultimately rejection by bishops in the west after the effective end of imperial power there this concept became a key element of the meaning of emperor in the byzantine and orthodox east but went out of favour in the west with the rise of roman catholicism the byzantine empire also produced three women who effectively governed the state the empress irene and the empresses zoe and theodora latin emperors edit main article latin emperor in 1204 constantinople fell to the venetians and the franks in the fourth crusade following the sacking of the city the conquerors declared a new empire of romania known to historians as the latin empire of constantinople installing baldwin ix count of flanders as emperor however byzantine resistance to the new empire meant that it was in constant struggle to establish itself byzantine emperor michael viii palaiologos succeeded in recapturing constantinople in 1261 the principality of achaea a vassal state the empire had created in morea greece intermittently continued to recognise the authority of the crusader emperors for another half century pretenders to the title continued among the european nobility until circa 1383 after the 4th crusade edit with constantinople occupied claimants to the imperial succession styled themselves as emperor in the chief centres of resistance the laskarid dynasty in the empire of nicaea the komnenid dynasty in the empire of trebizond and the doukid dynasty in the despotate of epirus in 1248 epirus recognised the nicaean emperors who subsequently recaptured constantinople in 1261 the trapezuntine emperor formally submitted in constantinople in 1281 5 but frequently flouted convention by styling themselves emperor back in trebizond thereafter europe edit this section needs more citations please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed july 2020 learn how and when to remove this message byzantium s close cultural and political interaction with its balkan neighbours bulgaria and serbia and with russia kievan rus then muscovy led to the adoption of byzantine imperial traditions in all of these countries holy roman empire edit main article holy roman emperor portrait of charles v holy roman emperor from 1519 to 1556 after titian the emperor of the romans title was a reflection of the translatio imperii transfer of rule principle that regarded the holy roman emperors as the inheritors of the title of emperor of the western roman empire despite the continued existence of the roman empire in the east hence the problem of two emperors from the time of otto the great onward much of the former carolingian kingdom of eastern francia became the holy roman empire the prince electors elected one of their peers as king of the romans and king of italy before being crowned by the pope the emperor could also pursue the election of his heir usually a son as king who would then succeed him after his death this junior king then bore the title of king of the romans although technically already ruling after the election he would be crowned as emperor by the pope the last emperor to be crowned by the pope was charles v all emperors after him were technically emperors elect but were universally referred to as emperor the holy roman emperor was considered the first among those in power he was also the first defender of christianity from 1452 to the end of the holy roman empire in 1806 except in the years 1742 to 1745 only members of the house of habsburg were holy roman emperors karl von habsburg is currently the head of the house of habsburg 6 7 8 austrian empire edit main article emperor of austria franz joseph i of austria the first austrian emperor was the last holy roman emperor francis ii in the face of aggressions by napoleon francis feared for the future of the holy roman empire he wished to maintain his and his family s imperial status in the event that the holy roman empire should be dissolved as it indeed was in 1806 when an austrian led army suffered a humiliating defeat at the battle of austerlitz 9 after which the victorious napoleon proceeded to dismantle the old reich by severing a good portion from the empire and turning it into a separate confederation of the rhine with the size of his imperial realm significantly reduced francis ii holy roman emperor became francis i emperor of austria the new imperial title may have sounded less prestigious than the old one but francis dynasty continued to rule from austria and a habsburg monarch was still an emperor kaiser and not just merely a king könig in name according to the historian friedrich heer the austrian habsburg emperor remained an auctoritas of a special kind he was the grandson of the caesars he remained the patron of the holy church 10 the title lasted just a little over one century until 1918 but it was never clear what territory constituted the empire of austria when francis took the title in 1804 the habsburg lands as a whole were dubbed the kaisertum österreich kaisertum might literally be translated as emperordom on analogy with kingdom or emperor ship the term denotes specifically the territory ruled by an emperor and is thus somewhat more general than reich which in 1804 carried connotations of universal rule austria proper as opposed to the complex of habsburg lands as a whole had been part of the archduchy of austria since the 15th century and most of the other territories of the empire had their own institutions and territorial history there were some attempts at centralisation especially during the reign of maria theresa and her son joseph ii holy roman emperor these efforts were finalised in the early 19th century when the lands of the crown of saint stephen hungary were given self government in 1867 the non hungarian portions were called the empire of austria they were officially known as the kingdoms and lands represented in the imperial council reichsrat the title of emperor of austria and the associated empire were both abolished at the end world war i in 1918 when german austria became a republic and the other kingdoms and lands represented in the imperial council established their independence or adhesion to other states the kaisers of the austrian empire 1804 1918 were franz i 1804 1835 ferdinand i 1835 1848 franz joseph i 1848 1916 and karl i 1916 1918 the current head of the house of habsburg is karl von habsburg 11 12 bulgaria edit main articles first bulgarian empire and second bulgarian empire simeon i of bulgaria the first holder of the imperial title tsar in 913 simeon i of bulgaria was crowned emperor tsar originally more fully tsesar cěsar of his own people by the patriarch of constantinople and imperial regent nicholas mystikos outside the byzantine capital 13 in its final expanded form under the second bulgarian empire the title read emperor and autocrat of all bulgarians and greeks цар и самодържец на всички българи и гърци car i samodăržec na vsički bălgari i gărci in the modern vernacular 14 the roman component in the bulgarian imperial title indicated both rule over greek speakers and the derivation of the imperial tradition from the romans however this component was never recognised by the byzantine court byzantine recognition of simeon s imperial title was revoked by the succeeding byzantine government the decade 914 924 was spent in destructive warfare between byzantium and bulgaria over this and other matters of conflict the bulgarian monarch who had further irritated his byzantine counterpart by claiming the title emperor of the romans basileus tōn rōmaiōn was eventually recognised as emperor of the bulgarians basileus tōn boulgarōn by the byzantine emperor romanos i lakapenos in 924 15 byzantine recognition of the imperial dignity of the bulgarian monarch and the patriarchal dignity of the bulgarian patriarch was again confirmed at the conclusion of permanent peace and a bulgarian byzantine dynastic marriage in 927 in the meantime the bulgarian imperial title may have been also tacitly confirmed by the pope as claimed in later bulgarian diplomatic correspondence 16 the bulgarian imperial title tsar was adopted by all bulgarian monarchs up to the fall of bulgaria under ottoman rule despite the attempt of pope innocent iii to limit the bulgarian monarch to the title of king rex kaloyan of bulgaria considered himself an emperor imperator and his successor boril of bulgaria was specifically accused of improperly using the imperial title by his neighbour the latin emperor henry of flanders 17 nevertheless the bulgarian imperial title was recognised by its neighbours and trading partners including byzantium hungary serbia venice genoa dubrovnik 14th century bulgarian literary compositions saw the bulgarian capital tarnovo as a successor of rome and constantinople 18 after bulgaria obtained full independence from the ottoman empire in 1908 its monarch who was previously styled knyaz prince took the traditional title of tsar this time translated as king simeon saxe coburg gotha is the former tsar simeon ii of bulgaria 19 france edit main article emperor of the french the kings of the ancien régime and the july monarchy used the title empereur de france in diplomatic correspondence and treaties with the ottoman emperor from at least 1673 onwards the ottomans insisted on this elevated style while refusing to recognise the holy roman emperors or the russian tsars because of their rival claims of the roman crown in short it was an indirect insult by the ottomans to the hre and the russians the french kings also used it for morocco 1682 and persia 1715 first french empire edit main article first french empire one of the most famous imperial coronation ceremonies was that of napoleon crowning himself emperor in the presence of pope pius vii who had blessed the regalia at the notre dame cathedral in paris the painting by david commemorating the event is equally famous the gothic cathedral restyled style empire supervised by the mother of the emperor on the balcony a fictional addition while she had not been present at the ceremony the pope positioned near the altar napoleon proceeds to crown his then wife joséphine de beauharnais as empress napoleon bonaparte who was already first consul of the french republic premier consul de la république française for life declared himself emperor of the french empereur des français on 18 may 1804 thus creating the french empire empire français 20 napoleon relinquished the title of emperor of the french on 6 april and again on 11 april 1814 napoleon s infant son napoleon ii was recognised by the council of peers as emperor from the moment of his father s abdication and therefore reigned as opposed to ruled as emperor for fifteen days 22 june to 7 july 1815 elba edit since 3 may 1814 the sovereign principality of elba was created as a miniature non hereditary monarchy under the exiled french emperor napoleon i according to the treaty of fontainebleau 1814 napoleon i was allowed to enjoy the imperial title for life the islands were not restyled an empire on 26 february 1815 napoleon abandoned elba for france reviving the french empire for a hundred days the allies declared an end to napoleon s sovereignty over elba on 25 march 1815 and on 31 march 1815 elba was ceded to the restored grand duchy of tuscany by the congress of vienna after his final defeat napoleon was treated as a general by the british authorities during his second exile to atlantic isle of st helena his title was a matter of dispute with the governor of st helena who insisted on addressing him as general bonaparte despite the historical reality that he had been an emperor and therefore retained the title 21 22 23 second french empire edit main article second french empire napoleon i s nephew napoleon iii resurrected the title of emperor on 2 december 1852 after establishing the second french empire in a presidential coup subsequently approved by a plebiscite 24 his reign was marked by large scale public works the development of social policy and the extension of france s influence throughout the world during his reign he also set about creating the second mexican empire headed by his choice of maximilian i of mexico a member of the house of habsburg to regain france s hold in the americas and to achieve greatness for the latin race 25 napoleon iii was deposed on 4 september 1870 after france s defeat in the franco prussian war the third republic followed and after the death of his son napoleon iv in 1879 during the zulu war the bonapartist movement split and the third republic was to last until 1940 the role of head of the house of bonaparte is claimed by jean christophe napoléon and charles napoléon iberian peninsula edit spain edit main article imperator totius hispaniae the origin of the title imperator totius hispaniae latin for emperor of all spain note 1 is murky it was associated with the leonese monarchy perhaps as far back as alfonso the great r 866 910 the last two kings of its astur leonese dynasty were called emperors in a contemporary source citation needed king sancho iii of navarre conquered leon in 1034 and began using it his son ferdinand i of castile also took the title in 1039 ferdinand s son alfonso vi of león and castile took the title in 1077 it then passed to his son in law alfonso i of aragon in 1109 his stepson and alfonso vi s grandson alfonso vii was the only one who actually had an imperial coronation in 1135 the title was not exactly hereditary but self proclaimed by those who had wholly or partially united the christian northern part of the iberian peninsula often at the expense of killing rival siblings the popes and holy roman emperors protested at the usage of the imperial title as a usurpation of leadership in western christendom after alfonso vii s death in 1157 the title was abandoned and the kings who used it are not commonly mentioned as having been emperors in spanish or...
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