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utional adjustments were made so that charles ii could be invited back from exile in 1660 to be king under a restored monarchy 116 burial place of oliver cromwell in westminster abbey from 1658 to 1661 cromwell s body was exhumed from westminster abbey on 30 january 1661 the 12th anniversary of the execution of charles i and was subjected to a posthumous execution as were the remains of john bradshaw and henry ireton the body of cromwell s daughter was allowed to remain buried in the abbey his body was hanged in chains at tyburn london and then thrown into a pit his head was cut off and displayed on the roof of westminster hall at the palace of westminster until at least 1684 afterwards it was owned by various people including a documented sale in 1814 to josiah henry wilkinson 117 118 and it was publicly exhibited several times before being buried beneath the floor of the antechapel at sidney sussex college cambridge in 1960 115 119 the exact position was not publicly disclosed but a plaque marks the approximate location 120 many people began to question whether the body mutilated at tyburn and the head seen on westminster hall were cromwell s 121 these doubts arose because it was assumed that cromwell s body was reburied in several places between his death in september 1658 and the exhumation of january 1661 in order to protect it from vengeful royalists the stories suggest that his bodily remains are buried in london cambridgeshire northamptonshire or yorkshire 119 the cromwell vault was later used as a burial place for charles ii s illegitimate descendants 122 in westminster abbey the site of cromwell s burial was marked during the 19th century by a floor stone in what is now the raf chapel reading the burial place of oliver cromwell 1658 1661 123 character assessment a contemporaneous satirical view of cromwell as a usurper of monarchical power during his lifetime some tracts painted cromwell as a hypocrite motivated by power for example the machiavilian cromwell and the juglers discovered are parts of an attack on cromwell by the levellers after 1647 and both present him as a machiavellian figure 124 john spittlehouse presented a more positive assessment in a warning piece discharged comparing him to moses rescuing the english by taking them safely through the red sea of the civil wars 125 poet john milton called cromwell our chief of men in his sonnet xvi the 1640s also saw support for cromwell in his fight against charles i from massachusetts bay colony s first church whose members included the colony s founder john winthrop and his son stephen a colonel in cromwell s army 126 127 128 129 several biographies were published soon after cromwell s death an example is the perfect politician which describes how cromwell loved men more than books and provides a nuanced assessment of him as an energetic campaigner for liberty of conscience who is brought down by pride and ambition 130 an equally nuanced but less positive assessment was published in 1667 by edward hyde 1st earl of clarendon in his history of the rebellion and civil wars in england clarendon famously declares that cromwell will be looked upon by posterity as a brave bad man 131 he argues that cromwell s rise to power had been helped by his great spirit and energy but also by his ruthlessness clarendon was not one of cromwell s confidantes and his account was written after the restoration of the monarchy 131 during the early 18th century cromwell s image began to be adopted and reshaped by the whigs as part of a wider project to give their political objectives historical legitimacy john toland rewrote edmund ludlow s memoirs in order to remove the puritan elements and replace them with a whiggish brand of republicanism and it presents the cromwellian protectorate as a military tyranny through ludlow toland portrayed cromwell as a despot who crushed the beginnings of democratic rule in the 1640s 132 i hope to render the english name as great and formidable as ever the roman was 133 cromwell during the early 19th century cromwell began to be portrayed in a positive light by romantic artists and poets thomas carlyle continued this reassessment in the 1840s publishing oliver cromwell s letters and speeches with elucidations an annotated collection of his letters and speeches in which he described english puritanism as the last of all our heroisms while taking a negative view of his own era 134 by the late 19th century carlyle s portrayal of cromwell had become assimilated into whig and liberal historiography stressing the centrality of puritan morality and earnestness the civil war historian samuel rawson gardiner concluded that the man it is ever so with the noblest was greater than his work 135 gardiner stressed cromwell s dynamic and mercurial character and his role in dismantling absolute monarchy rather than his religious conviction 136 cromwell s foreign policy also provided an attractive forerunner of victorian imperial expansion with gardiner stressing his constancy of effort to make england great by land and sea 137 calvin coolidge described cromwell as a brilliant statesman who dared to oppose the tyranny of the kings 138 during the first half of the 20th century cromwell s reputation was often influenced by the rise of fascism in nazi germany and in italy the historian wilbur cortez abbott for example devoted much of his career to compiling and editing a multi volume collection of cromwell s letters and speeches published between 1937 and 1947 abbott argues that cromwell was a proto fascist however subsequent historians such as john morrill have criticised both abbott s interpretation of cromwell and his editorial approach 139 late 20th century historians re examined the nature of cromwell s faith and of his authoritarian regime austin woolrych explored the issue of dictatorship in depth arguing that cromwell was subject to two conflicting forces his obligation to the army and his desire to achieve a lasting settlement by winning back the confidence of the nation as a whole he argued that the dictatorial elements of cromwell s rule stemmed less from its military origin or the participation of army officers in civil government than from his constant commitment to the interest of the people of god and his conviction that suppressing vice and encouraging virtue constituted the chief end of government 140 historians such as john morrill blair worden and j c davis have developed this theme revealing the extent to which cromwell s writing and speeches are suffused with biblical references and arguing that his radical actions were driven by his zeal for godly reformation 141 142 143 irish campaign controversy the extent of cromwell s brutality 144 145 in ireland has been strongly debated some historians argue that cromwell never accepted responsibility for the killing of civilians in ireland claiming that he had acted harshly but only against those in arms 146 other historians cite cromwell s contemporary reports to london including that of 27 september 1649 in which he lists the slaying of 3 000 military personnel followed by the phrase and many inhabitants 147 in september 1649 he justified his sacking of drogheda as revenge for the massacres of protestant settlers in ulster in 1641 calling the massacre the righteous judgement of god on these barbarous wretches who have imbrued their hands with so much innocent blood 148 but the rebels had not held drogheda in 1641 many of its garrison were in fact english royalists on the other hand the worst atrocities committed in ireland such as mass evictions killings and deportation of over 50 000 men women and children as prisoners of war and indentured servants to bermuda and barbados were carried out under the command of other generals after cromwell had left for england 149 some point to his actions on entering ireland cromwell demanded that no supplies be seized from civilian inhabitants and that everything be fairly purchased i do hereby warn all officers soldiers and others under my command not to do any wrong or violence toward country people or any persons whatsoever unless they be actually in arms or office with the enemy as they shall answer to the contrary at their utmost peril 150 the massacres at drogheda and wexford were in some ways typical of the day especially in the context of the recently ended thirty years war 151 152 although there are few comparable incidents during the civil wars in england or scotland which were fought mainly between protestant adversaries albeit of differing denominations one possible comparison is cromwell s siege of basing house in 1645 the seat of the prominent catholic the marquess of winchester which resulted in about 100 of the garrison of 400 being killed after being refused quarter contemporaries also reported civilian casualties six catholic priests and a woman 153 the scale of the deaths at basing house was much smaller 154 cromwell himself said of the slaughter at drogheda in his first letter back to the council of state i believe we put to the sword the whole number of the defendants i do not think thirty of the whole number escaped with their lives 155 cromwell s orders in the heat of the action i forbade them to spare any that were in arms in the town followed a request for surrender at the start of the siege which was refused the military protocol of the day was that a town or garrison that rejected the chance to surrender was not entitled to quarter 156 157 the refusal of the garrison at drogheda to do this even after the walls had been breached was to cromwell justification for the massacre 158 where cromwell negotiated the surrender of fortified towns as at carlow new ross and clonmel some historians who argue that he respected the terms of surrender and protected the townspeople s lives and property 159 at wexford he again began negotiations for surrender the captain of wexford castle surrendered during the negotiations and in the confusion some of cromwell s troops began indiscriminate killing and looting 160 161 162 163 although cromwell s time spent on campaign in ireland was limited and he did not take on executive powers until 1653 he is often the central focus of wider debates about whether as historians such as mark levene and john morrill suggest the commonwealth conducted a deliberate programme of ethnic cleansing in ireland 164 faced with the prospect of an irish alliance with charles ii cromwell carried out a series of massacres to subdue the irish then once cromwell had returned to england the english commissary general henry ireton cromwell s son in law and key adviser adopted a deliberate policy of crop burning and starvation total excess deaths for the entire period of the wars of the three kingdoms in ireland was estimated by william petty the 17th century economist to be 600 000 out of a total irish population of 1 400 000 in 1641 165 166 167 the sieges of drogheda and wexford have been prominently mentioned in histories and literature up to the present day james joyce for example mentioned drogheda in his novel ulysses what about sanctimonious cromwell and his ironsides that put the women and children of drogheda to the sword with the bible text god is love pasted round the mouth of his cannon similarly winston churchill writing in 1957 described cromwell s impact on anglo irish relations u pon all of these cromwell s record was a lasting bane by an uncompleted process of terror by an iniquitous land settlement by the virtual proscription of the catholic religion by the bloody deeds already described he cut new gulfs between the nations and the creeds hell or connaught were the terms he thrust upon the native inhabitants and they for their part across three hundred years have used as their keenest expression of hatred the curse of cromwell on you upon all of us there still lies the curse of cromwell 168 a key surviving statement of cromwell s views on the conquest of ireland is his declaration of the lord lieutenant of ireland for the undeceiving of deluded and seduced people of january 1650 169 in this he was scathing about catholicism saying i shall not where i have the power suffer the exercise of the mass 170 but he also wrote as for the people what thoughts they have in the matter of religion in their own breasts i cannot reach but i shall think it my duty if they walk honestly and peaceably not to cause them in the least to suffer for the same 170 private soldiers who surrendered their arms and shall live peaceably and honestly at their several homes they shall be permitted so to do 171 in 1965 the irish minister for lands stated that his policies were necessary to undo the work of cromwell in 1997 irish taoiseach bertie ahern later said he voiced forthright views to british foreign secretary robin cook when his delegation saw a portrait of cromwell in a room in the foreign office 172 multiple irish folk songs mention cromwell in a negative light a few examples of songs mentioning cromwell include the men behind the wire which has lyrics about cromwell harming england s global reputation and a final toast for oliver cromwell by ye banished privateers which is a modern take on cromwell s legacy 173 174 the song young ned of the hill by the pogues which includes a direct curse onto cromwell has the lyrics a curse upon you oliver cromwell you who raped our motherland i hope you re rotting down in hell for the horrors that you sent to our misfortunate forefathers whom you robbed of their birthright to hell or connaught may you burn in hell tonight 175 military assessment main article new model army cromwell has been credited for the formation of the new model army as a member of parliament he contributed significantly to the reforms contained in the self denying ordinance passed by parliament in early 1645 the ordinance was enacted partly in response to the failure to capitalise on victory at marston moor it decreed that the army be remodeled on a national basis replacing the old county associations it also forced members of the house of commons and the lords such as manchester to choose between civil office and military command all of them except cromwell chose to renounce their military positions in contrast cromwell s commission was given continued extensions and he was allowed to remain in parliament 26 in april 1645 the new model army finally took to the field with thomas fairfax in command and cromwell as lieutenant general of cavalry and second in command 26 some authorities maintain that the army s organisation and the thorough training of its men were accomplished by fairfax not cromwell 176 in contrast to fairfax cromwell had no formal training in military tactics however he is generally accepted to have been a capable military leader particularly as a battlefield commander 177 178 in recruiting he sought loyal and well behaved men regardless of their religion or social status he required good treatment and reliabl...
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