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Text of the page (random words):
onvey it unambiguously with say type verbs he must resort to an indirect speech construction with an overt complementizer alternatively he can resort to non structural signals a short pause a change in intonation or a mimicry of chandler s voice or he must abandon say type constructions altogether and convey his meaning some other way quotative go and quotative be like solve this ambiguity these innovative quotatives always signal that the following clause is mimetic a direct quote of speech or thought many languages russian japanese georgian ancient greek to name just a few have overt markers to ensure that interior clauses are understood as being directly quoted material whether or not those quoted clauses contain grammatical shifts though of course they often do the quotatives go and be like serve this same purpose they are structural unambiguous markers for direct speech which is why one cannot use them for indirect speech and which is also why they have spread so widely and quickly they have met a real need in the language quotative go however is attested long before quotative be like the oxford english dictionary puts the earliest usage in the early 19th century initially as a way to mime sounds people made then later as a way to report on actual speech here s an example from dickens pickwick papers so although i have said that both quotative be like and quotative go met a need in english for an unambiguous direct quotation marker it was go that in fact met the need first by at least a century this historical fact leads me to suspect that quotative be like met a slightly different need while quotative go became a direct quotation marker for speech acts quotative be like became a direct quotation marker for thoughts as haddican et al rightly note an innovative feature of these quotatives is that they allow direct quotes to be descriptors of states in other words the directly marked quotes of go denote external speech the directly marked quotes of be like primarily denote internal speech i e thoughts or attitudes i believe this hypothesis is supported by the earliest uses of quotative be like to which we now turn 2 today young native and non native speakers of english frequently use like as a versatile discourse marker or interjection in addition to its use as a quotative d arcy 2005 d arcy provides two extreme examples of discourse marker like both are taken from a large corpus of spoken english 8 i love carrie like carrie s like a little like out of it but like she s the funniest like she s a space cadet anyways so she s like taking shots she s like talking away to me and she s like what s wrong with you 9 well you just cut out like a girl figure and a boy figure and then you d cut out like a dress or a skirt or a coat and like you d colour it this usage does not become noticeable in available corpora until the 1980s so nearly all papers that i have read assume that discourse marker like and qutoative be like arose more or less in tandem during the 1970s becoming common by the 1980s however using the google books corpus i was able to find an early use of like that presages quotative be like this early use also seems to set the stage for the versatile discursive uses of like seen in 8 and 9 this early use is the expression like wow it seems to have arisen during the 1950s though perhaps earlier in the early rock n roll scenes in the southern united states here are some examples the first is from 1957 a line from a rock n roll song by tommy sands 10 when you walk down the street my heart skips a beat man like wow the second is from a 1960 issue of business education world 11 like wow i m taking a real cool course called general business it s the most the third is from a novel called the fugitive pigeon published in 1965 12 but all of a sudden you re like wow you know what i mean and by 1971 we have a full example of quotative be like note that this early occurrence uses an expletive as the subject 13 but to me it was like oh why can t you say gee that s wonderful these early uses of like wow in 10 and 11 denote a stative feeling or attitude rather than any kind of eventive speech act this is especially clear in 11 where the expression is a direct response to a question about how the speaker is feeling the quotative in 13 likewise seems to be a stative predicate rather than an eventive one in fact in nearly all of the earliest 1uses of quotative be like from the 1970s and early 1980s as reported in the google books corpus the intention is to denote a feeling or attitude not a direct quote of a speech act such eventive predications don t become common until the 1990s and 2000s like wow then arose in 1950s slang as a stative description however the sentence in 14 below suggests that wow was not interpreted as a structurally independent interjection but as an adjective this is from a 1960 edition of road and track magazine 14 man that crate would look like wow with a merc grille it is possible that like is an adverb here but in my estimation it is most likely still a garden variety manner preposition that has innovatively selected for a bare adjective typically like as a preposition only selects nps as its complement however with the advent of like wow it loosened its selection requirements and began to select for adjectives as well and not just adjectives the bottom line in this advertisement from billboard magazine in may 1960 demonstrates that it also began to select for adverbs apparently in the 1950s and early 1960s like became a popular and versatile manner preposition once like loosened its requirements to select ap complements it s easy to see how it could start selecting quotes thus becoming a new direct quote marker like narrative go and given the stative denotation of the original phrase like wow it s also easy to see why stative to be would become the verbal element in this quotative rather than a lexical verb like act or go indeed it appears that the first uses of quotative be like were entirely restricted to the phrase like wow ensuring that subsequent uses would likewise have stative readings the ad above also shows how easy it would be for like to become an all around discourse marker once it began to select for a wider range of phrases so based on the timeline of evidence in the corpus i posit the following evolution the emergence of quotative like i follow haddican et al in assuming that like in quotative be like is still a manner preposition however while they assume the preposition did not undergo any change i argue that like became more versatile in its selection restrictions this versatility allowed it first to select aps then to select quotes initially this quotative construction was just an extension of the phrase like wow but it soon began to select any quoted material and from the beginning this quotative possessed two features a it had an obvious mimetic implicature ensuring that it would be a direct quote marker similar to narrative go and b it had a stative denotation due to the stative dentation of the original phrase like wow ensuring that the directly marked quotes were reflective of internal speech i e thoughts or attitudes a corpus analysis by buchstaller 2001 has shown that even today quotative go is much more likely than quotative be like to frame real occurring speech pp 10 in other words be like continues to be used more often as a stative rather than eventive predicate as i mentioned earlier haddican et al are correct that one innovative aspect of quotative be like is that quotes are now able to be descriptors of states however i believe they overstate the eventive vs stative ambiguity that arises in these quotatives most of the time in real contexts they are as unambiguously stative as they are unambiguously mimetic of the state haddican et al themselves note that even these eventive readings are open to clarification asking whether or not someone literally said something sounds much odder following a say type quotative than a be like quotative with a putatively eventive reading 3 nevertheless as i showed at the very beginning of this post there are instances where quotative be like seems to denote an eventive speech act linguistically this is odder than it sounds at first a single verbal construction like quotative be like should not have a stative and eventive reading this ambiguity can only happen for two reasons either there is some special semantic function at work in this construction or there are in fact two separate quotative constructions each with its own syntactic structures it is tempting to see a correlation between this ambiguity and the putative ambiguity between stative be and eventive be also known as the be of activity consider the following sentences 15 joey was silly 16 rachel asked joey to be silly both forms of be select an adjective however 16 unlike 15 can be taken to mean that joey performed some silly action in other words the small clause in 16 seems to be an eventive predication not a stative one it has been argued parsons 1990 that this eventive be is not the usual copular form but a completely different verb that means something like to act in other words english to be is actually a homophonous pair of verbs similar to auxiliary have and possessive have perhaps this lexical ambiguity in be is related to the eventive vs stative ambiguity in quotative be like the stative reading arises when stative be is involved the eventive reading arises when the eventive lexical be is involved haddican et al argue against this line of thought diachronically we know that quotative be like has arisen rapidly in many varieties of english and that in all of these varieties the semantics are ambiguous but if there are in fact two be verbs that underwent this quotative innovation then we would need to posit two unrelated channels of change one in which like quote became a possible complement of stative be and one in which like quote became a possible complement of eventive be this is actually a problematic claim given that presumably stative and eventive be have different structures the former undergoes its typical v to t movement in english the latter given its eventive semantics would be expected to remain in the vp like any other lexical verb these underlying structures would demand that we devise different processes by which qutoative be like arose however given the rapidity with which it did in fact arise it is more probable that it arose via a single process and the inevitable conclusion is that there is a single stative verb to be that underwent the process this conclusion is also verified by the auxiliary like behavior of be in quotatives involving adverbs and questions 17 ross was totally like i don t care 18 was ross like i don t care although the ambiguous stative vs eventive reading still occurs here 17 exhibits raising above advp and 18 exhibits subject aux inversion in other words be in these quotatives behaves like an ordinary copular auxiliary not a lexical verb we therefore should not posit a separate eventive be verb we need another way to explain the semantic ambiguity of these quotatives haddican et al explain this ambiguity with davidsonian semantics briefly stated they argue that there is a single stative be verb both in these qutoative constructions and in english more generally however be has a semantic locale function that in certain contexts can localize the state in a short term event and this localization of an event can force an agentive role onto the subject even when an adjective has been selected by be so in a sentence such as 19 be will have a denotation as in 20 19 joey is being silly 20 be λsλeλx s ϵs e locale s argument x e 20 takes a property of state s and localizes it into an event a moment in which joey was silly in the right context it is not a great leap to coerce this experiencer event into an agentive one the application of these semantics to be like quotatives is straightforward in the state reading be like is simply a stage level use of the copula localised to the event in which the subject of be exhibited the relevant behaviour the eventive reading arises when the event mapped to is an agentive one where the most plausible event of an agent behaving in a quotative manner is the relevant speech act haddical et al 2012 pp 85 in short the ambiguity between stative and eventive be like arises from a semantic property that forces certain states of being to be processed as localized events whereby the experiencer of the event takes on an agentive role in certain quotative contexts the embedded quote is processed as an event and the subject is understood as having caused that event i e as actually saying something rather than just experiencing an attitude i agree that it would be better not to posit two homophonous verbs stative be vs be of activity to account for the ambiguous stative vs eventive denotations of quotative be like doing so requires two separate analyses and two separate channels of diffusion which seems unlikely given the rapidity with which this quotative did in fact spread across many varieties of english however haddican et al s application of davidsonian semantics to explain the ambiguous readings runs into a problem in sentences like 21 below as well as in the earlier example in 13 21 it was like oh mom can i film a movie in the house it won t be any problem at all this is clearly an eventive predication of quotative be like but instead of an agentive subject we have expletive it recall that haddican et al s analysis relies on the notion that stative be has a locale function that locates the state into a temporary moment or event this localization can coerce an experiencer subject into the role of an agentive subject when the most likely reading as above suggests that the temporary event was an actual speech act as haddican et al say themselves this event assigns an agentive role to the subject pp 85 however by definition the expletive in 21 receives no theta role and can therefore be neither the experiencer of a state nor the agent of an event and yet 21 clearly denotes an eventive reading the speaker actually spoke the words or something like them the fact that be like quotatives can take an eventive or even a stative reading when an expletive surfaces in spec tp suggests that davidsonian semantics do not explain the ambiguous eventive vs stative readings associated with these quotatives the fact that be like quotatives exhibit both experiencer subjects and expletive subjects also suggests that the quote cp is the only obligatory argument assigned by be like the only alternative seems to be that there are in fact two homophonous be verbs and quotative be like makes use of both maybe this isn t such a big deal if i m right about the diachronic process by which quotative be like arose then we can at least see a two step process quotative be like was solely a stative predicate in its early use and for mo...